LI BRARY OF CONGRE SS, i 

[SMITHSONIAN DEPOSIT.] 

i 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. ! 



OUTLINES OF NATURE. 



B V 



OLIVER SMITH, A. M„ 

• \ 
COUNSELLER AT LAW, *.\D STV'MBEP OP THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE. 



NEW YORK 

. 1847. 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1847, 

BY OLIVER SMITH, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern 
District of the State of New- York. 









OUTLINES OF NATURE. 



The object of this publication is to solve the following 
problem, which appears in Draper's edition of Kane's Chem- 
istry, at page 199. 

" It is possible that hereafter, some sublime generalization 
may embrace the phenomena of heat, of light, of electricity, 
of cohesion and gravity, as well as of chemical affinity within 
one law, and indicate how, by varied manifestations of a sin- 
gle agent, their separate peculiarities may arise ; but though 
we may look forward to such a state of science, we dare not 
rashly seek to anticipate its approach." 

The course I shall take here may seem circuitous to be 
sure, but perhaps, the solution will thus become more com- 
plete and satisfactory than it would otherwise be. 

As follows I commence : — 
'. (I) Some general term for whatever can be made the subject 
of thought or consideration, may be naturally expected to 
occur in every language, — and in ours this word is Thing ; 
and Knowledge which should be the grand object of all who 
are susceptible of it, and such only we denominate Rational, 
consists in understanding more or less of the Relations, which 
things, as here intended Bear to each other. And relation 
signifies difference, as well as resemblance ; a total absence 
as well as the presence of any connection. What relation does 
a pound of water bear to the light of the sun 1 For the mo- 
ment I perceive no direct or immediate connection between 
them ; and this want of connection, comes under the general 
head of relation, or no relation. And having thus defined the 
words thing, knowledge, reason and relation, we proceed to 
suggest a few very obvious axiomas, — a term that implies 
here, what is too evident to admit of being formally de- 
monstrated. And, first; there is such a thing as Space, which 
has been and will be, forever, interminable in all directions 
from any given position. Again, such a thing as Duration 
there is, interminable both in the past and the future. — 
Moreover, it cannot be rationally, doubted, that Something, the 
earth beneath us, for example, which may be made to affect 
oursenses, and termed Essentia, and no two particles of which 



4 OUTLINES OF NATURE. 

can occupy exactly one and the same point, does now actually 
exist or endure in contradistinction to mere vacant space. 

Some, and, apparently, most things are Real, as space, the 
earth and so forth ; while the rest are Imaginary ones, as a 
centaur or a golden mountain for instance. And, of each of 
these two grand classes of things a large proportion, and per- 
haps the majority are Essential, or consist of essentia, as the 
earth or a stone, for example ; while the rest are Nihilous 
ones, or do not consist of any essentia at all, as duration, vir- 
tue, and the like ; and in some, if not all of these four sub- 
classes of things, we find those that exist Absolutely, as space 
and duration, while the rest of them there have only a Rela- 
tive, or dependent being, as virtue and vice, for it is obvious 
that these two last mentioned things can exist only where 
there are essential beings to be virtuous or vicious. And 
thus, we shall have Eight departments for things ; though we 
shall not stop just now to inquire whether they will all be 
found represented or occupied, each and every one of them 
by many or even by any of its own appropriate things or not so. 
And, all things as here understood, of whatever description, 
whether real or imaginary, essential or nihilous, absolute or 
relative, considered as one entire group, we denominate 
Nature ; and the same, remember never could or can have any- 
exterior, every point however remote from another or all of 
the rest, in any direction being the centre of the whole of it. 

Nature, as thus indicated, may be conveniently considered, 
when divided into 1st, Ethics, a general term for manners, 
customs, habits, opinions and so onward ; 2d : Mathematics, or 
things relating to magnitude number and quantity ; and, 3d ; 
Physics, which imply no less than essentia space and duration : 
and, as this definition is the same substantially that has just 
been given of nature, the consequence follows that in speak- 
ing of physics, we shall have to make use of mathematics 
and ethics as particular occasions may require. These two 
last mentioned subjects, however, are really the attributes of 
physics, into which nature, mostly if not wholly, resolves her- 
self, after all our divisions of her — though convenience re- 
quires that, in the present instance, expeeially, we should 
consider them as being of the same grade with that of physics, 
and discuss them in a preliminary manner, each one alone by 
itself, and then we shall find ourselves better prepared than 
otherwise we should be, perhaps, to make the proper applica- 
tion of them. 

(2.) Ethics, (1,) the first grand department here made of 
nature, we shall now consider as divisible, not exactly as 
above suggested, into manners, customs and habits, and so 



DIVINITY. 5 

forth : but into what will be, as we think, substantially the 
same thing as that division is, and more convenient for our 
present object: namely, 1st, Divinity, for which term the bar- 
barous and unmeaning ones of metaphysics and philosophy 
are of frequently substituted, and which implies an indefinite 
something, real or imaginary, that is supposed to bear an im- 
portant relation to us, and yet is far beyond the reach of our 
knowledge : 2d, Jure, or those rules of action which rational 
beings, and especially men prescribe for theirselves : and, 3d, 
Language, or the communication of ideas. 

Language, divinity and jure, may seem, at first thought, to be 
an arrangement quite as natural as the one just mentioned is, 
in this case, but even then, we should not be exempt from the 
necessity of anticipating much from time to time, of what would 
remain to be spoken of, and, besides all this, what is consi- 
dered as divine and religious, is among the first lessons which 
people of all descriptions, give to their children. We shall 
therefore, commence here, assigning no other reason for doing 
so, than merely that the article is moderately short, and may 
be as well disposed of, first in order upon this occasion per- 
haps, as otherwise. 

(3.) Of Divinity, (2,) we have imbracing the whole of it, 
1st, Theology, or the knowledge, or description of rational 
beings, who are happy and powerful, and different from any 
thing with which we are conversant ; 2d, Demonology, or the 
knowledge or description of rational beings who are vicious 
and wretched and widely variant from any thing of which we 
have ever taken cognizance ; and, 3d, Psychology, or the 
knowledge, or description of beings whose existence com- 
menced as ours did, upon some planet in the heavens, and 
whose condition has now become much altered. And, in 
speaking of these beings, we take into consideration, what we 
know or suppose from revelation or otherwise, of the circum- 
stances that attend them, and especially, about their respective 
abodes ; and here we should add, by way of explanation per- 
haps, that the reason why we put all these personages, places 
and circumstances, apparently physical, under this head of 
divinity, a sub-department of ethics, is, that we know nothing 
of their essentia ; nor do we know even whether they consist 
of any essentia at all. They are believed, by most persons of 
all descriptions, to be realities, and to have some kind of 
character, though it is never imagined to be one and the same 
thing by any two individuals. And the consideration of that 
character, be it what it may be, will come, as we think, should 
we ever understand it correctly, very properly here. 
1* 



6 DIVINITY. 

(4.) Under this general head of divinity, (3.) we have to 
observe, that Deity is derived from the Latin word Deus ; and 
this is evidently a modification of the Greek word, Dios, 
which comes from Zeus ; and this Zeus, genitive Dios, may 
be well suspected to be somewhat related to the preposition 
Dia, which implies, in the same Greek language, Through or 
Throughout. The Greeks, however, used the word Theos, for 
God, which may have been a modification of Zeus ; though 
the intimation is found in our Greek Lexicons, that it was de- 
rived, more probably from Theo, to run, and thus intended to 
have reference to the motions of the heavenly bodies, or to 
activity in general. 

The term Al, which is found in the Hebrew and Arabian 
languages, and rendered thence into English by our word, God, 
implies contiguity, universality and even eternity, or all. And 
in the address to the Hebrews, that appears in the New Tes- 
tament, Jesus is put for Joshua, which seems to be a modifica- 
tion of Jehu, and Jehu of Jah, and Jah of Jehovah, a term that 
implies, in the Hebrew language, I am, or i" live. — And from 
it the Greeks may have had their Iaomai, to heal ; which is 
admitted, in our Greek Lexicons, to have given rise to Jason; 
and of this name the Greeks may have considered Jesus a 
modification. And from one or more of these words, the an- 
cient Greeks may have had their Zeus, the Chinese their 
Josh, and the Romans, the first part of their Jupiter, which 
term would thus imply, as it seems to have actually done, liv- 
ing father, or the father of life. The Romans had also their 
Diespater, or the father of day, or of light ; and this Latin 
word, Dies, may be fairly suspected to have come from the 
Greek, Dia above mentioned. 

. The Hebrews had their Shiloh, or messenger to us, and 
also their Mesias, or annointed, both of which characters ap- 
pear to have been included in the Hindu Chris tna ; whence 
the Greek verb, Chrio, to annoint, may have possibly origina- 
ted, and, from this last mentioned verb, the name, Christos, 
or Christ, is admitted to have come. 

And, finally, we add, in this connection, that the words, 
God and Good, are found to exist, and to be nearly, synony- 
mous, the one with the other of them under one from another 
different modifications of spelling and pronunciation, in many 
of the languages of Europe. And, from what we have sug- 
gested, we perceive, that, among the ancient Hebrews, or 
Jews, and Arabians, eternity and life were personified and 
revered, while among the Greeks and Romans, life and ac- 
tivity were so, and that among the English, Germans and 
Saxons, and their neighbors, goodness has ever been so. 



DIVINITY. 7 

(5.) It is natural for needy biones, a general term, by 
which we mean vegetals, as well as animals, and beings di- 
vine, to aim at something for aid. And this aiming, or tenden- 
cy, or attachment, is termed Religion, which imports, legiti- 
mately, a binding, or rather, a rebinding, to the object thus 
aimed at. And this religion, whatever it may be, something 
or nothing, in any given individual, arises from that kind of 
divinity in which he believes, and is always an indice of it. 
And, hence the importance of thinking correctly upon this as 
well as upon other subjects. 

From what we have just been saying, we perceive, that 
man, being a needy bione, is necessarily a religious one, and 
more particularly so, when he begins to feel his own igno- 
rance, weakness and necessities. Then we find him enter- 
taining apprehensions about unknown causes ; and he person- 
ifies and reveres them as rational agents, to whom he is to 
look for assistance. He gives them names, and represents 
them by perceptible objects. And, to the whole, as a group, 
though he knows nothing about them, he is apt to apply a 
general term, which, in the English language, is rendered, 
God. And, although a part of what is far beyond the know- 
ledge of one, may be fully comprehended, and thoroughly un- 
derstood by another individual, yet both of them may be 
equally fearful of what remains still unknown to them. And 
thus we are, all of us, more or less religious ; and hence, 
too, it is, that all religions become, substantially, one and 
the same thing ; and yet the object of religious veneration, 
which is always an unknown cause, will not be likely to be 
the same, identically, with any two individuals. 

Man, we have said, is a religious being, and has an object 
of religions veneration, which we all agree to denominate in 
the English language, God, or Jehovah; though ue is ima- 
gined differently, by different persons. 

Science accomplishes wonderful things, and raises her 
well meaning possessor high in the scale of being, and may. 
one day, raise him far toward the throne of the universe. 
And, just so far as we trace effects to their causes, so far does 
our God recede and rise before and beyond us. And none of 
us should ever expect to reach, and certainly not to surmount 
his topless throne ; for the wisest of us will ever be still at an 
infinite distance from real omniscience. Knowledge, with 
us, is not absolute, remember, but only Relative ; and the 
more we have, the more do we usually wish to have of it. 
The more we perceive of what is around us, the more are 
we likely to extend our view to what may be yet obscure in 



^^^m 



8 DIVINITY. 



the distance before us. And, although we may be disgusted 
at one thing here, we are always ready to give our attention 
to another one there. And the farther we advance in any 
science, the more extensive appears the field which is yet to 
be explored, and the more lofty and majestic are the many 
elevations, that are still to be surmounted beyond us. And, 
although "hills may peep over hills, and Alps on Alps arise " 
in prospect, so that we may have no hopes of ever arriving at 
the ultimate summit, still our course should be always on- 
ward, onward and upward, to higher and brighter, and brighter 
regions of science. And, Oh ! to mount— like the soaring 
eagle, and gaze, with ecstatic transports, upon the full-orbed 
effulgence of light, and life, and truth ! And here, sophophi- 
ly, or a love for that which is wise and sober, is disposed to 
stop, while divinity proceeds. Oh ! to enter within the pearly 
gates, and walk the golden streets of eternity ; bask in the 
mild beams of pure felicity, and quaff the blissful cup of sci- 
ence forever ! 

Hail ! celestial city yonder ! 

Regions of unsullied splendor ! 

Blissful haven ! tranquil shore ! 

There no storm will toss me more : 

There no sea nor tempest rages, 

Founded on the rock of ages. 

Hail ! celestial city yonder ! 

Regions of unsullied splendor 1 

How my panting spirit quivering, 

Longs to burst this cage of suffering 

Wing the joyful way and there, 

Join the glad angelic choir, 

Live with him who calmly died, 

Once, on Calvary crucified, 

There with all the blood- washed throng, 

Tune the never-ending song, 

Bathe in bliss, forever quaffing, 

Immortality, and basking, 

In felicity and having, 

Every bliss for only asking. 

Hail ! celestial city yonder ! 

Regions of unsullied splendor ! 

Thy inhabitants how sprightly, 

Youthful fair, immortal, lightly 

Clothed in spotless robes of whiteness, 

All exceed the sun in brightness. 
But let us proceed to what is intelligible. 



JURE. 

(6.) We pass to the subject of Jure (2) ; and, here we have 
to observe, that the ancient Romans used the word Jus, the 
participle passive, somewhat abbreviated, from the verb Jubeo, 
I order, for expressing what is ordered by any one able to en- 
force it. And, as what is so ordered, is presumed to be right 
till the contrary appears, the import of the word under consi- 
deration, became extended and modified, so as to embrace 
what is truly exact in any case. And furthermore still, we 
have to remark here, that, as the actions of rational beings are 
to be always presumed to be, in their own opinion at least, 
correct, till admitted to be not so, it follows that we may carry 
the whole import here mentioned of the word, under consi- 
deration along with us in our present discussion. 

Jus, (6.) we consider to become, not Jura, but Jures, in the 
plural, and then we shall have Jure, a, euphonous term in the 
singular number for the purpose before us. From this word, 
Jus, the Romans had in part at least, their Jurisconsultus, a 
counsellor-at-law, Juredicus contracted to Judex, a judge or ex- 
pounder of the law : Jurisprudential, jurisprudence, or the 
providing of jure, Judicium, a judgement, and, Justicia or jus- 
tice, or the application of jure to given cases. And, from the 
same word they derived their verb Juro to swear ; and from 
this latter one they had Juratus, a witness or juryman. And, 
finally, we have to add here, that from this word Jus, we have 
Juriste, one versed in jure, and Judiciary, a comprehensive 
term for the judical department of the government, and other 
derivatives from it, still, might be here mentioned. 

Lex, lege or law, has a general import, and is applicable to 
any operation whatever ; and accordingly we speak of physi- 
cal and mathematical, as well as of ethical laws ; or in other 
words, jure is law, but law is not always jure. 

Regula or rule, is something calculated or intended to mod- 
ify a more general action. — And Norma implies uniformity, or 
something not widely different from it. — And things or groups 
of things may have their peculiar consuetudines or customs, 
under the same general law. — And thus we perceive that no 
two of these words which relate to arrangement or order, have 
precisely the same meaning, the one with the another of 
them ; — a remark that is applicable generally, though not uni- 
versally, in fact, to all the words of any language. 

All essential things are actuated more or less, in a direct 
manner by physical laws ; and these laws in biones, are 
called Instinctue or instinct. And many species among the 



10 JURE-PERSONALE. 

higher grades of animals, manifest great affection for their 
young ones; and individuals of many species of them, con- 
gregate, and even associate together ; and thus become, for a 
time at least, a peaceable community, without interfering with 
each other's possessions. To the deportment which biones 
below man, exhibit to our observation however, we apply the 
term Habitue or habit.— We know nothing of any jure pro- 
perly so called, among them, which is distinguishable from 
natural affection, and physical power ; and what we do know 
less or more upon this point, may be advantageously disposed 
of, as we think in the description of the particular bione where 
it may happen to appear. 

(7.) As man is the only being generally denominated Ra- 
tional with, whom we are conversant, we shall confine our- 
selves for the present to Jurehumane, or human government ; 
and here we have to observe, that the term government is de- 
rived from the Latin term Guberno, I govern, which is evi- 
dently a contraction of the three words in the same language, 
Ago, Super, Regnum, — I act over or upon the kingdom. And 
of this subject we have, embracing the whole of it, three de- 
partments : 1st, Jurepersonale, or Morality, or those rules of 
action which persons, — a term that implies with us all, I be- 
lieve, rational beings, — prescribe each one for hisself. 
2d, Jurenationeale, or those rules of action which independent 
nations adopt for theirselves ; and 3d, Juregenerale, called by 
Vattel, a well known writer upon it, " The Law of Nations," 
or that character and conduct which every one, whether in- 
dividual or consociate, is bound, in order to be entitled to the 
rights of men, to have and exhibit upon all occasions,- be his 
morality or nationeality what they may be. 

(8.) Morality (7.) consists, 1st, of Religion, which term has 
been already (5.) explained ; 2d, of Conscience, which implies 
actual knowledge in a given case ; and 3d, Honor, the promi- 
nent ingredients of which should be Frankness, Liberality, 
and Self-respect. Or, in other words, every one's morality, 
good, bad, or indifferent, will arise from his religion, his con- 
science, and his sense of honor, and be the indice of them, 
whatever they maybe. And hence the importance of attend- 
ing to first principles in ethics, as well as in mathematics and 
physics. All these principles, for so we shall call them here, 
are primarily constitutional or innate in their possessor, be 
their real character what it may be ; and therefore it is, that 
they are seldom if ever found to be exactly the same thing in 
one that they are in another individual. And besides this 
circumstance, they are generally modified less or more by 



JURE-NATJONEALE. 11 

education, and thus made to differ more than they might other- 
wise do in one, from what they are in another person. And 
who has not observed, that what is religious, conscientious, 
or honorable, in his own estimation, may not be so in that of 
others around him ? 

We do not say that the Exercise of these principles is coe- 
val with our being, or that we have any innate ideas ; but the 
Phrene, or ground-work of them, certainly is so. Or, in other 
words, I am a full believer in the doctrines, when properly 
understood and taught, of Phrenologia. And hence I per- 
ceive, or think I perceive, in some respects at least, why it 
is, that, occasionally, a person, educated in one sect of reli- 
gion, will become a member of another. And hence, too, the 
reason appears, why an individual, brought up in a virtuous 
and well regulated family, may be, and such an occurrence is 
not wholly unknown to any of us, deservedly executed as a 
murderer ; or, unmindful of all the instructions that may have 
been pressed upon him in regard to self-respect and a due 
sense of propriety, he may die a drunkard in a brothel or the 
gutter. And hence, also, is to be sought the reason why the 
converse of all this should take place, as we all know it does 
now and then. 

(9.) We pass to the subject of Jurenationeale (7.), and re- 
specting it we have to observe, that it always arises necessa- 
rily from individual morality ; and hence the importance of 
attending to the first principles, the simple ingredients of hu- 
man character, becomes more and more obvious. Jurena- 
tioneale must have commenced in the first family of our race ; 
and thence extended to the rising neighborhood of their off- 
spring around them ; and thus become, for a time at least, 
Patriarchal ; and this, too, by steps analogous to what is ob- 
servable, at this day, among savages, till it appeared what it 
now is in Europe and elsewhere. And here we have, 1st, 
Customs, whether explained by the decisions of courts for 
the purpose, or not so ; 2d, Statutes, or special enactments, 
which always arise from customs, and either confirm or annul 
them, or supply their deficiencies ; and, 3d, Constitutions of 
government, which arise from the other two things, customs 
and statutes here mentioned ; for the constitution of any gov- 
ernment is a mere generalization of what is already under- 
stood and recognized as proper and salutary by those who 
adopt it. 

In every respectable government of a national character 
there will be, very naturally, the Legislative, the Judicial, and 
the Executive departments of it ; and from the whole commu- 



12 JURE-NATIONEALE. 

nity thus constituted, there will be likely to arise three 
branches of greater or less size, the Military, the Naval, and 
the Divine ones ; and each of these will carry along with 
itself, from the main trunk, — which may be called by way of 
distinction, as it usually is in fact, the Civil Community, — so 
much of Legislative, Judicial, and Executive power as it may 
have occasion to exercise. And in each of these branches, 
as well as in the civil community itself, will be likely to arise 
collections of persons as a city or town, a company of sol- 
diers, or even a Mess, so called, in a vessel, duly recognized, 
each for some particular and definite purpose ; and conse- 
quently invested, either impliedly or formally, with certain 
privileges, favors, or Munera, which we shall here write Mu- 
neres ; and hence they might be termed Munericipes, or recipi- 
ents of favor, and so, contracting the term to Municipes the 
Romans did call the persons theirselves ; while to . the 
whole body, as such, they applied the term Municipium, a 
contraction of Munericipium, which I shall here write 
Munericipiue. And the rules by which the members of these 
munericipiues are governed among theirselves are conse- 
quently Munericipiale, or, in the language here used, Juremu- 
nericipiale ; for the enforcement of which the writ of Manda- 
mus, so called, is the proper one, if any is resorted to for that 
purpose ; while, for ascertaining the validity of their, claims 
to exercise any special powers, or to enjoy any peculiar pri- 
vileges, the writ of Quo Warranto, which might be more pro- 
perly termed the writ of Qua Auctoritate, is the right one ; 
that is, the government may, if it think proper to do so, call, 
not in the ordinary manner, but in one more formal and di- 
rect than that is, upon any person or body beneath its control 
at all, to show by what authority they do as they do in this 
or that specified case, and if they are found to be exercising 
powers that do not belong to them, they may be ordered to 
desist from doing so, and punished in case they still con- 
tinue in the same. 

Again, there will be, very naturally, in every community 
of men, associations or co-partnerships in business ; and the 
rules by which the members, as such, of these are governed 
among theirselves may be called Juresociale, for the enforce- 
ment of which the Action of Account, so called, or what is 
substantially the same thing in some modified form, is the 
right one. And thus, under the general head of Jurenationeale 
(9) we shall have, 1 st, Juremunericipiale, where the government 
does not enforce the rules of action to its own courts di- 
rectly, but orders the body concerned in them to do so, and 



JURE-GENERALE. 13 

punishes them in case they omit to obey such orders ; 2nd, 
Juresociale, when the same thing takes place substantially, 
though not in precisely the same manner ; and 3d, Jureindi- 
viduale, when the government acts directly upon individual 
persons, or bodies of persons considered as individual ones ; 
and here, of the whole, we have three principal cases to 
which the juriste or practitioner, in courts of justice, should 
give his attention; 1st, when an action is to be brought or 
defended upon jure, whether common or statutery, of which 
the opposite party and the court concerned are presumed to 
be aware, and when it is necessary for him to refer to that 
jure only in a general way, as the jure in such case made 
and provided, or perhaps not at all ; 2d , when steps are to 
be taken upon a special or local statute or custom, and when 
the same must be identified and shown to be applicable to the 
case in hand ; and 3d, when proceedings are to be had 
upon a corporation ordinance, or an agreement among par- 
ties which also must be specified, so that all parties interest- 
ed may be enabled to understand the applicability of it to 
the case presented. 

(10.) Jurenationeale (9.) becomes, in this country Jurea- 
mericane : and here we have, 1st, Jurefederale, or the Fed- 
eral government ; 2d, Juresubnationeale, or the government 
of any individual state, as such of our national union, and 3d; 
Jureterritoreale, or the government of the territories, so called, 
of our country. And what we have said of Jurenationeale 
is applicable to either of these three last mentioned forms of 
government. 

(11.) We advance to the consideration of juregenerale. (7.) 
It arises from morality and jurenationeale : and here we 
have, or should have, Civility, Hospitality and Equity, with- 
out which, no one should expect to be considered and treated 
as a man. And here too we find, customs, and special enact- 
ments or formal treaties : but no proper constitution of govern- 
ment, except the civility, hospitality and equity above men- 
tioned. 

No one's morality or juregenerale can be reached directly 
any further than they are acted out. And when and where- 
ever they do appear in this manner, the government then and 
there takes hold of them : and in doing so, it is said to exer- 
cise equity powers, and, for the exercise of such powers there 
is in some places, a special court of chancery, so called, in 
contradistinction to the ordinary courts of justice there. In 
many of the states of our union, however, this equity branch 



14 LANGUAGE. 

of their jurisprudence is blended with their common tribunals, 
and is so now, or mostly so under the present constitution of 
the State of New York. 

, ) LANGUAGE. 

(12.) We have now something to say upon the subject of 
Language(2.) The term is a modification of the Latin word, 
Lingua, which implies Tongue, in English. And this tongue 
is the elongated and principal organ that is found in the mouth 
of the vertebrated animals ; though the word in question is 
often extended in import so as to imply other articles also, 
whose form, like that of the one under consideration, is long 
and taper. 

This lingua, of which we are speaking, and the reader will 
be apt to find the same thing in his own mouth, is instrumen- 
tal, more or less, in the production of Vocal sounds ; and vocal 
sounds are made by the emission of air in the proper man- 
ner, from Pulmones, and pulmones are the Apparatue Respi- 
ratory of the higher grades of animals. And as the lingua, 
here intended, is instrumental in effecting vocal sounds, so 
those sounds are called Language, — a, term that may be con- 
strued to mean the effects or operation of the lingua. And, 
furthermore, as these sounds are prompted or occasioned, as 
they must be in all cases, necessarily, by ideas, sensations, 
or impressions upon the brain and nerves of their maker, so, 
any indications, whether sounds, ordinary movements, signs, 
or touches, which a bione makes of his feelings, come, at 
length, to be denominated, in a figurative nanner, Language. 
And yet the simplest and most original kind of language, with 
which we are conversant — for but little do we know, to say 
the most that we can say in this respect, of the language of 
vegetals, or even of the lower grades of animals — must con- 
sist of vocal sounds. And, of these sounds, we have two 
kinds : — 1st, mere Cries, which result from sensations that 
are confused, more or less, so that the subject of those sensa- 
tions does not know exactly what it needs ; and 2d, Articu- 
late Sounds ; and especially, when made understandingly. 
And, of this last mentioned kind of language, which we shall 
here call Words, and which may be said to be peculiar to 
man — for the articulating of none of the animals beneath 
him, not even of parrots,*deserves to be called so, it is, that 
we intend to speak at this time. These words are first utter- 
ed or Spoken, as indications or Names of perceptible objects ; 
and then these objects become, in their turn, the representa- 



LANGUAGE. 15 

tives of words ; and, as such they are pictured or sculptured 
upon some ground or surface ; and being there distinctly un- 
derstood, they may be subsequently recognized, when deli- 
neated by proper movements, even in space. 

The words, of which we are speaking, or the representa- 
tives of them, the Chinese compounded, and hence arose their 
language, which may be termed a complicated one ; while the 
people of Asia-occidentale, resolved them into Letters, and 
thus formed what we shall here denominate a Literated lan- 
guage ; and which is said to have been written, in the first 
instance, from right to left, and back again, alternately ; and 
then from right to left only, as the Hebrew Bible is now ac- 
tually done ; and finally from left to right, as we usually do, 
at this day. And out of this literated method of writing, 
arose the Hieroglyphic, or Hierographic variety of it, where 
a letter is made by the representation of an object whose 
name commences with it, as a Lion for the letter L. The 
term Hiero, implies that, the manner of writing, now in ques- 
tion, was used by the Priests; Glyphic, that the characters of 
it were sculptured upon stone, and Graphic, that it was writ- 
ten or painted, also, as well as sculptured. 

(13.) In language as we now understand it, or rather in its 
formation which is called Grammar, we have three principal 
departments ; 1st, Epeographa, or the proper liter ation of 
spelling of words ; 2d, Epeologia, or the import and derivation 
of words ; and 3d, Epeotaxe, or the collocation of them into 
language proper ; and such language may be in Verse, which 
means to be measured ; that is, to be in lines that consist of 
a certain number of Feet, so called, or not so ; and a foot in 
this case consists of a certain number of syllables. The 
Greeks and Romans had two kinds of this foot: 1st, the 
Spondee, which consists of two long accented syllables, as 
Palma, and 2d ; the Dactyle, which consists of three sylla- 
bles, while the first one only of them is accented, as Possi- 
ble. The heroic verse of these nations, which they used for 
epic poems, was usually Hexameter, where each line contains 
six feet. In English we have a peculiar kind of Pentame- 
ter ; thus : 

Roll | on thou fair] orb, and with| gladness pur|sue 
The| path that conducts thee to| splendor a|gain. 

The feet of most of our versification consists of two syl- 
lables, while the second one of them is accented thus : 
In yon|der grave| your Dru|id lies. 

This line should be read, however, with a pause in the 
middle, thus : 

In yonder grave— your Druid lies. 



16 LANGUAGE. 

Our usual heroic verse is Pentameter, thus : 

Glows in, the stars, and blossoms in, the trees. 

Though in reading this line, we should humor it, thus : 
Glows in the stars, and— blossoms in the trees. 

And similar modifications should attend the reading of all 
verse. 

Measured (13) language or verse may be in stanzas or not 
so ; and the first we shall here name Versucommune, as thus: 
So pilgrims on the scorching sand, 

Beneath a burning sky, 
Long for a cooling stream at hand, 
And they must drink or die. 

Where the termination of one line depends upon that of 
another, in regard to its sound, and here let us add that the 
Greeks and Romans seem not to have adopted stanzas in 
their versification. The first line of the above quoted stan- 
zas consists of four, and the second of three feet, and the 
same is common in our Lyric verse, and we name its form 
Short meter, while, if all the lines of a stanzas consist of four 
feet each, we call it Long meter. 

(14.) Language that is measured and not in stanzas (13) is 
termed Versublancue, or blank verse, as Milton's Paradise 
Lost and Regained ; and language, whether measured or not 
so, may be short and abrupt, and calculated by a peculiar 
choice and collocation of its words to arouse our attention, and 
enlist our feelings, as Ossian, a well known work, or it may 
not be so ; though very much depends in this case upon the 
subject spoken of. The first is called Poese, or poetry, a 
term originally synonymous with Fiction, and the other 
Prose, which generally implies an unafTacted statement of 
facts. And here it should be remembered, that measured 
language is often mere dull prose, while that which is not 
so, is occasionally poetic and impassioned ; and here we have 
to add that under this general head of language we shall find 
a suitable place, 1st; for History, or narration of every des- 
cription, whether Real, Fictitious or only Exagerated ; 2d; 
for Retorics or eloquence, including Musics, or the art of 
speaking well ; and 3d, for Logics, or the art of reasoning 
correctly ; and either of these may be written or spoken in 
prose or verse. 

(15.) Of History, (14) as above defined, we have, 1st : Bi- 
ography, or personal history ; 2d ; Civil History, or the his- 
tory of nations and other bodies of people ; and 3d ; Of any 
Casual Things. And here, in history generally, whether bi- 
ographical, civil or casual, whether in prose or poetry, or a 



LANGUAGE. 17 

mixture of both, thiee great classes of effects are practicable 
— Attraction, Repulsion, and Progression. By means of his 
language, one may attract others to him, or drive them from 
him, or urge them forward to some definite object ; or what 
is about the same thing in this case, he may instruct, amuse, 
or appal them. Sometimes occurrences require to be repre- 
sented accurately ; and then again we are pleased to believe 
that what we are reading or hearing is more or less exager- 
ated, and colored. And still again we are highly amused 
with a story, every incident of which is adverse to nature's 
operations. -Now we are instructed by a plain statement of 
realities ; next we may be amused by the little plausibili- 
ties of a well written novel ; and then again we may have 
our attention excited for the moment by the extravagance and 
ridiculous absurdities of ordinary story telling. Who would 
be pleased and satisfied to find that his servant had lied to 
him, in regard to what has been done in his regular business, 
where strict accuracy is required ? And who can read an 
unvarnished statement of uninteresting facts, and call it a well 
written novel, where fiction only is expected 1 And who is 
not put in good humor, for the moment, by such a story as 
this, the impossibility of which appears upon the face of it 1 
A hunter in the woods, having a charge of powder only, and 
no shot or ball in his gun, was eating cherries ; taking their 
stones from his mouth, he put them into his gun, and fired 
them at a deer which happened to be then passing by him — 
and the next year he saw the same deer with a cherry tree 
growing out of his head ! 

A miracle is generally understood to be an occurrence 
brought about, adversely to the laws of Nature by the special 
agency of some being superior to ourselves. And in a reli- 
gious discourse, the history of them is always acceptible. — 
And in fact, without them, such a discourse would be atheis- 
tic, profane, dull and uninteresting to us all. 

(16.) In Retorics (14.) we have various figures of speech ; 
and among these figures, the principal ones are 1st, the 
Metaphor so called, where one thing is fully identified with 
another ; as to say that an influential person in community is 
the pillar of the same ; 2d, the Antithese or contrast where one 
thing is wholly opposite to another, and, 3d, the Simile or 
comparison where there is not a full, but only a partial resem- 
blance among any number of one from another different things. 
And furthermore, here in retorics, we have to take into consi- 
deration ; 1st, the Occasion for speaking at all; 2d, our 
Enunciation, and 3d, our Gesticulation in attempting to do so. 
2* 



1 8 LANGUAGE. 

And these things being properly attended to, there will be 
likely to result, and especially, if we have the indispensible 
requisite, the proper knowledge in the case, either, Colloquy, 
Oratory, or Musical Sounds, according to circumstances. 

(17.) In reasoning or argumentation, the subject of logics, 
(14.) we have the Major or primary, the Minor or secondary 
Propositions, and the Conclusion or inference ; and the whole 
of the same is called a Syllogism, which maybe construed to 
imply the proper arrangement of rationeality. And here we 
take the occasion to observe, that there are three ways in 
which we arive at conclusions, and thus form opinions in re- 
gard to subjects in our own minds. Or in other words, there 
are three kinds of reasoning to which we are all of us, more 
or less accustomed; 1st, Analogy, where we conclude that 
a second occurrence of anything will take place, amid cir- 
cumstances similar to those which attended the first one ; 2d, 
Induction, where we deduce generalizations from the colloca- 
tion of insulated facts, and 3d, Demonstration, where we indi- 
cate how a subject is. And in this indication, we have three 
methods of proceeding ; 1st, by subjecting the thing that may 
be under consideration to actual use, or application, which is 
called the Experimental one ; 2d, by putting its parts together, 
which is termed the Synthetic one, and ; 3d, by taking them 
asunder, which is named the Analytic method of reasoning. 
And our evidence in each of these cases, may be either In- 
tuition, where we perceive a thing directly : or, 2d, Testi- 
mony, or what is stated or said of it, or, 3d, Circumstances, or 
things that attend the one that may be in hand. That is, in 
the case of an experiment, for example, we may see a thing 
tested, or other may assure us it has been so, or circumstances 
may evince the same. And it our subject is a mathematical 
one, the testimony in question, which we may have respecting 
it, should be, not wholly what others may assert, but generally 
and mostly, the record of our own past operations upon it ; 
and, the circumstances of which we have just above spoken 
as probable to attend it, will be what is called the Reduction 
to an Absurdity, which shows that a thing must be so, because 
it cannot be otherwise. Nor should we have anything here 
that is doubtful, or that rests upon testimony, other than the 
record of the past operations concerning it, of either ourselves, 
or of others, upon whose accuracy in the case, we have rea- 
son to believe, full reliance may be put. 

(18.) We have now to repeat our suggestion heretofore (2.) 
made that the business of language is to convey ideas -from 
one to another or more individuals. And further, we add in 



Language. 19 

this connection, what we have already (12.) intimated, that 
the simplest kind of it, as far as we know, consists in Excla- 
mations, as Oh ! Ah ! Alas' &c, though but few ideas, and no 
very distinct, or definite, or complicated ones can be conveyed 
in this way. A perfect sentence may be formed, and a dis- 
tinct and definite idea consequently conveyed, however, by 
means of two kinds of words, or parts of speech, so called, 
the Verb and the Name, thus, — John Picks Berries ; picks 
being the verb and John and berries names in this case. 
Now, let us add what we term the Substitute, or pronoun ; 
and we shall become enabled to extend this expression ; so 
that it will speak more than it now does, and that too without- 
ambiguity, thus, — John picks berries ; (add) He eats them, — 
he and them being substitutes here, the first for John, and the 
other for berries. Had we said, in this case, that John picks 
berries, (add) John eats berries, we should not have indicated, 
for a certainty, that he ate the same berries that he picked ; 
nor even that it was the same John who picked that ate them ; 
so that the substitute enables us to avoid, not only Repetition, 
as Grammarians have suggested, but Ambiguity also. 

Now, as the verbs Add and Give, and the substitute Other, 
must be frequently used to perform the same general office of 
connecting words and sentences together, let us write them, 
respectively ; thus, And, If, and Or, and so we shall have 
five sorts of words, or parts of speech, namely : 1st, the Ex- 
clamation; 2d, the Name ; 3d, the Verb, which expresses 
action, being, or something of that character ; 4th, the Sub- 
stitute ; and 5th, the Connective. But we need some w T ord, 
a Preposition we shall name it, in default of a more appropri- 
ate term for it, that will serve to point out, more particularly, 
the effect, or Relation, of what we do, or mean to express, 
thus, — John picks berries and puts them Into water, for ex- 
ample. — Here the term into, which we call a preposition, re- 
fers to them, as well as to water ; and hence Grammarians 
say, it expresses or denotes a Relation betwixt them. 
Ask the question in this case, — What into ? and the answer 
will be very obviously, them, the berries into. Ask again, 
thus — Into what? and the answer will be ready — Into water. 
And, thus, Into may be said to belong in this case to them, 
and to govern water at the same time. And, remarks similar 
to these may be made respecting all prepositions. 

Furthermore, in order to render our expression a little more 
definite than it now is, let us call in the aid of Attributes or 
Adjectives, as we name them, thus — John picks Many berries, 
or Large berries, and puts them into The water or basket ; 



20 LANGUAGE. 

the words many, large, and the, being adjectives in this case. 
And by adding now a Modifier, or adverb, so called, we shall 
have not only large berries, but Very large ones, and become 
enabled, moreover, to express Negation ; for the word Not is 
a modifier, as well as very ; and, beside this circumstance, 
the word Out, in the expression, Be-out, is a modifier also ; 
and this same expression being contracted to the word But, 
becomes a connective, and one that we could not have had 
till now, because we had not the ingredients of which it is_ 
formed. And the same may be said of the word Neither, 
which is a contraction of Not- Other ; and is sometimes a con- 
nective, sometimes a modifier, and then again a substitute. 
And, still further, we may add here, that the word Though, 
which we find among the connectives, is related, very obvi- 
ously, and nearly to, the word Thus, which we consider as a 
modifier. 

We have now, Eight distinct parts of speech ; and the 
Verbal or Participle, partaking, as it is, of the characters of 
the name, the verb and the adjective, and being not freely at 
home with either of them, claims a separate department for it- 
self ; or to rank with the other parts of speech. And how 
else can we dispose of the word, Doing, in such an expres- 
sion as this, — He spoke of doing so, — than to call it a Verbal, 
as Dr. Webster has suggested ? 

Next come the small words, A and The, which are usually 
termed Articles, and considered as constituting a distinct part 
of speech. To me, however, they exhibit no well founded 
claim to be separated from the great department of adjectives. 
The, This and That denote, respectively, a kind of definite- 
ness ; and A, An, Some, Any, he, a kino' of indefiniteness ; 
and One, Two, Three, <&c, express the idea of number ; 
while First, Second, Third, &c, indicate that of arrange- 
ment or order ; and My, Thy, His, Her, &c, signify 
possession or property ; and if one of these groups of words 
is to be separated from the class of adjectives, the rest, for a 
similar reason, be it what it may be, should be so too. And 
where should we find a place at which to stop in this division 
or multiplication of the parts of speech? 

We have then, in the English language, Nine parts of 
speech, or classes of words ; and one of them, the verbal, is 
a compound of three of the others. Nor do I perceive occa- 
sion for a greater number of them in any language. 

(19.) Verbs, names, substitutes, and adjectives, being dif- 
ferently written or spoken, are made to express, not different 
things, but only different modifications of the same thing. 



LANGUAGE. 21 

Verbs have modes and times, and names and substitutes have 
numbers and cases ; and adjectives have generally three, and, 
occasionally, and especially in the English language, four 
degrees of comparison, as Whitish, White, Whiter, Whitest. 
Modifiers also, to whatever language belonging, are used in a 
comparative manner, as Abundantly, More abundantly, and 
Most abundantly. 

(20.) In all languages, there must be, I think, three species 
or kinds of the verb, thus : 1st, the Semanente, or neuter one, 
where the import or force of the verb concerned remains in 
it, as I am ; 2d, the Incadente, or transitive one, where its 
force falls directly upon another word, as I make pens, and 
3d, the Extensile, or intransitive verb, where its force is ex- 
tended by means of a preposition ; as I go to Boston. Some- 
times, however, the same word may be made, by the proper 
modification of its meaning, to assume two, and perhaps all 
three of these characters; as for example, 1st, A plant grows, 
where the verb grows is semanente; 2d, I grow a plant, or 
crop of wheat ; for many among us may be observed to ex- 
press in that manner, though rather awkwardly than other- 
wise to my ear, their own instrumentality in the case, and 
thus to make grow to become incadente ; and, 3d, a plant 
grows to such a point, when the verb, grows, is simply exten- 
sile. And each of these three kinds of the verb, except am, 
may be generally, for other exceptions there are very possibly 
here, in either the Active or Passive form, so called. As, I have 
— I am had — John strikes him. John is stricken by him; John 
goes to him ; John is gone to, or approached by him ; and each 
of these six varieties of the verb may be generally, for ex- 
ceptions we shall probably find here too, in either the Definite 
or indefinite conjugation, so named ; as / am moving, or, / 
move — I am being moved — or, I am moved. John is striking 
him, or, strikes him ; John is being struck by him — or, is struck 
by him. John is going to him, ox goes to him — John is being 
gone to by him — or, is gone to by him. And thus we have 
twelve subvarieties, beside modes and tenses, or times of the 
verb, each of which express a different modification of its im- 
port. And here let us observe, in passing, that the same pre- 
position follows the verb in its passive, which does so in its 
active form. These prepositions, the Greeks and Romans 
usually prefixed to the verb in such cases ; and thus we have 
in the Latin language, Adeo, Advenio, and so forth ; and sim- 
ilar combinations occur in the Greek one. 

Our verbs are made to express six distinctions of time, or 
in other words they have six tenses, so called ; 1st, the Prior- 



22 LANGUAGE. 

past, or pluperfect, which expresses an occurrence previous 
to something else — as / had been there ; 2d, the Past, which 
expresses simply something past, as / was there; 3d, the 
Perfect, which indicates something past, the consequences of 
which [remain, as I have had the measles ; thus indicating 
that the effect is, security against a second attack in that 
way. 4th, the Present, which now is, as / am ; 5th, the 
Priorfuture, or second future, which expresses a thing to oc- 
cur previous to something else, as I shall have written before 
your return ; and 6th, the Future, which is hereafter generally, 
but indefinite as to time, as / shall go. The Latin perfect is 
rendered by our past ; and a real perfect, like ours, that lan- 
guage has not ; and about the same may be said of the Greek 
one. Furthermore, our verbs are modified in six different 
ways, or they have six modes. 1st, the Commanding, or im- 
perative one, as Go, or Go thou, or Do thou go ; 2d, the Inde- 
finite one, which has two tenses, the future and the perfect ; 
as To go, or To have gone ; 3d, the Declarative, or indicative 
one, as simply, / am ; 4th, the Potential one, which express- 
es power, will, or obligation ; as, I may, must, can, or will go ; 
Thou mayest, must, canst, or shah go, and so onward ; 5th, 
the Conditional, or subjunctive one; as, If I am, — and 
6th, the Hypothetical one ; as, If I should be, or Should 
I be, and so forth ; and here we add that the preposi- 
tion To is not generally expressed before verbs, though really 
in the indefinite mode, after Bid, Dare, Fell, See, Have, 
make, need, and some others ; and thus we say, Bid him go, 
or, bid him to go, and so onward ; though as to myself, I am 
very apt to use the word To in all these cases. 

(21.) As we always use the nominative case in our lan- 
guage, it may seem at first thought, perhaps, that person and 
number are not necessary in our verbs ; but make the experi- 
ment to do without them there, and you will soon find your 
language ambiguous. As to myself, I experience much diffi- 
culty occasionally, as our language now is, not only in regard 
to the word It, for ^which I frequently substitute the expres- 
sion, The same, and sometimes repeat the principal itself, 
with the definitive, this, or that before it ; but also in regard 
to our relatives, although we have so many of them ; thus : 
Who, Which, What, That, As, Than, Where, When, Whence, 
and Thence; for even some of these last written words may 
be advantageously put, now and then, for the proper relative. 

(22.) To apply gender to any thing, is to personify it, or to 
consider it as a discretionary agent. We do so in regard to 
human beings of course ; and sometimes in regard to their 
passions also ; to many of the higher animals, below man— 



LANGUAGE. 23 

and to the sun in the heaven, and to those among his attend- 
ants, which bear the name of any being that is known or 
supposed to be, or to have been rational ; though at the appli- 
cation of gender much further than what is here specified, 
common sense will be likely to revolt ; and hence we have 
but few cases, comparatively speaking, where we can avoid, 
by putting the substitute He, She, or It, the ambiguity which 
the necessarily frequent use of this last mentioned one is apt 
to occasion. 

(23.) Dr. Webster, it is well known, for many there are 
who respect his directions in the use of words in our lan- 
guage, condemns the substitution of the word Be, for Is, or 
Am, after the connectives If, Though, and the like ; and those 
who are the most fastidiously pertinacious and vigilant in this 
awkward substitution, are apt to forget theirselves or their ob- 
ject, and thus to use the word Am or Is, occasionally as they 
should do. 

(24.) Names of time, place, distance, quantity, quality, 
price manner, and some others, perhaps, are made sometimes 
to perform the office of a modifier, without being really in any 
case at all — though the Greeks and Romans wrote and pro- 
nounced them, sometimes, as being in their accusative, and 
sometimes in their dative or ablative case; thus : it is worth a 
dollar. Here the name dollar is in no case at all, and modi- 
fies the adjective worth. Again : he rode ten miles ; here the 
word miles, being in no case, modifies rode. I am taught 
Grammar; here the name Grammar, being not in any case, 
modifies the verb am taught. I am going home ; here the 
name home, which is not governed by any thing, modifies am 
going. I shall go next year ; in this case the expression 
next year modifies shall go. He ran a race ; now the words 
a race modify ran. I work for two dollars a day ; here the 
words a day modify, or limit the expression two dollars ; and 
the latter one modifies work. In the expressions, To dream 
a dream — to think a thought — and speak a word, the names 
dream, thought, word, &c, may be considered as the objects, 
respectively of the verbs dream, think, and speak, &c, or as 
being in no case at all, and as modifying those verbs. 

(25.) Among the words of a compound verb, the modifier, 
when used at all, should occupy the penultimate place ; as 
thus : — Should otherwise be ;— would have otherwise been ; — 
shall suddenly come ; — shall be suddenly destroyed, and so 
onward. And the small words, Also, Likewise, Too, Only, 
&c, should be placed like others, and they are frequently 
found, both in written and spoken language, not to be so, ad- 



24 LANGUAGE. 

jacent to the ones upon which they may be intended to have 
an influence, or with which they may be naturally connected. 
Thus, I take this and that, also, likewise, or too; or, I take 
this only. Here, these words should be considered as adjec- 
tives, and belonging to the substitute, that. Suppose them 
modifiers of take, and you will vary the sense of the expres- 
sion, in which they are found, from what it now is, -—I shall 
take it and also, or likewise keep it. Here the word also, or 
likewise, modifies keep. The word too, however, cannot 
be thus collocated ; for, if we say, I shall take it and too keep 
it ; or, I shall take and keep too it, the word in question, can- 
not be, and especially when spoken, distinguished, very readily, 
to say the least of its predicament in this respect, from the 
preposition, To. And, hence we are obliged to say in this 
case, — I shall take it and keep it too, even when too modifies 
keep. 

(26.) The above small words, also, likewise, and too, of 
which we have just been speaking, are nearly synonymous, 
the one with another of them, to be sure ; but Dr. Blair sug- 
gests in his published lectures upon Retorics, a work well- 
known in this community, that no two or more words should 
be ever considered as being exactly so, in any language ; 
and that circumstances, if properly attended to, will always 
indicate a preference, in- any given case, for some one of any 
group of terms that may be supposed, at first thought, to im- 
ply one and the same thing. 

(27.) People are apt to be careless in the use of the word, 
only, — a circumstance which arises from another one, that it 
is generally considered as being always a modifier ; whereas 
it is often an adjective, as we have perceived above. The 
expression, for example, — I shall only keep it, implies, legiti- 
mately, that I shall do nothing else with it except simply to 
keep it; whereas the expression, — I shall keep it only, means, 
when properly understood, that I shall keep nothing else, of 
what may be under consideration, than the thing in question- 
And, in the first of these cases, the word only modifies keep ; 
while, in the other one, the same word is an adjective, and 
qualifies the word it. 

(28.) Words, commencing with the Latin preposition, Cum, 
Con, or Co, for all these particles imply the same thing, as 
Compound, Compare, and so onward, require the English pre- 
position, with, and not To, after them ; as thus, — Compound, 
or compare with and not To, a person or thing. Parallel 
and equal to a thing are proper because the Romans used their 
dative case after Par and Equus. 



LANGUAGE. 25 

(29.) The letter H, is generally mute, when it commences 
a syllable in our language that is not accented ; and, of course, 
the adjective A, becomes An before it, as though the vowel 
immediately after it were the real commencement, as in fact, 
is practically the case, of the syllable in question. And thus 
we say, an hyperbole, and not a hyperbole. Many among 
us may be observed to say, A horizontal, however, although 
the first syllable of this word, horizontal is only partially ac- 
cented, the full accent being upon its third syllable, and so of 
all similar words. And furthermore, persons among us, may 
be observed to write and speak occasionally, A historical, al- 
though the first syllable of this latter word is not accented at 
all. And if we could agree to give force to the letter H, in 
the following words, and say, A honor, A hour, A herb, and 
so forth, instead of An honor, An hour n ^4n herb, &c. ; and 
the same would not sound as it now does to our ears, harsh 
and uncouth, were we only accustomed to it, we should be 
diminishing the number of anomalies, which seems to be now 
unnecessarily great in the pronunciation of English words — 
An humble, which we often hear, is intolerable to me. 

(30.) U, and Eu, have the force of You when they com- 
mence a syllable, provided they are, at the same time long in 
their sound, or accent, in the English language. And, of 
course, we should say A usual, A European, A universal, &c, 
and not as many may be observed to do — An usual, An Eur- 
opean, An universal, and so onward ; though we should say, 
An unnatural, An ugly, &c. ; because the sound of u in these 
last mentioned words, is short. And furthermore, O in the 
word One, becomes Wo-; and of course we should say, A 
one, and not as many do, An one. And I r is a consonant 
when it commences a syllable. 

It may be said, that these anomalies serve to diversify the 
language we use ; though for one, I think it has variety 
enough without them. And yet, I perceive no indication that 
it will be very soon rid of them. The Latin termination of 
m and s, and the Greek ones of n and s, of names in the sin- 
gular number, should not be retained upon words that we have 
from those languages : for these terminations agree quite as 
little with the character of the English, as they do with that 
of the French, Spanish, and Italian languages : and, in 
neither of these last mentioned ones, though the/ might 
claim a place there as well as in ours, have the terminations 
in question ever been allowed to appear. 

(31.) I think we should write and speak Retorics, Logics, 
Musics, Arithmetics, &c, as well as Ethics. Mathematics and 
3 



26 LANGUAGE. 

Physics, and so on. And here let it be added, that this plural 
form is very expressive, and seems to be appropriate to the 
case. The Italians use it as well as we. The letter /, in 
the syllable Cian, as Physician, musician, &c, is a French 
interpolation, and should not be retained by us, I say Physi- 
can, musican, &c, as the Spaniards do ; and why should we 
not do so, as well as to say American, Mexican, he. Let us 
have uniformity here. For more uniformity in our language 
generally, Dr. Webster, whom we all agree to respect as an 
epeologiste, was, and still is in his published works, a greafc 
advocate. Himself and Themselves, ate expressions in com- 
mon use, to be sure, for Hisself and Their selves.; but, I like 
adherence to rules, and especially to good ones ; and there- 
fore, I generally adopt the latter of the two methods here 
specified, when I have occasion to use those words at all. 

(32.) In restoring our organs of speech to their natural po- 
sition after sounding a syllable that ends in a consonant, we 
usually give more or less of the sounds of e 7 and the same 
is generally true in the speaking of any language. And 
again, we have to observe here, that some consonants, when 
placed before some other ones, run into them as n into d in 
And ; n into t in Ant, without the intervention of the sound 
of e at all ; but k does not run into s in Asks; and hence the 
sound becomes in this case, Askese, and the same may be as 
well written Askes as not so. 

(33.) The expression which we often hear, Though ever so 
well, is not correct. We should say, in the case here alluded 
to, Though never so well, which implies what is really in- 
tended, though not legitimately expressed by the other me- 
thod. 

(34.) To say that one is under the influence of superstition, 
may be proper enough, and especially if such is the case in 
regard to him ; but to assert that he is then superstitious re- 
specting the same thing, is not so. The parent has supersti- 
tion over his child, while the latter has substition ; and is, 
therefore, substitious to his parents. 

(35.) Philosophy is a bad term for what it is commonly 
used. Legitimately, it means the wisdom of love or friend- 
ship. By Sophophily you will express what you intend — the 
love of what is wise and sober ; and by Sophophilo, a lover 
of the same. By Logophily you will express the love of ra- 
tionality, and by Logophilo a lover of it ; whereas Philology im- 
ports, when properly construed, not what the Greeks really 
intended by it, but the rationality of friendship ; and Philolo- 
giste, one versed in that subject. 



LANGUAGE. 27 

For the ill-constructed term of Taxidermy, which is some- 
what in vogue for the management of skins, that of Dermato- 
taxe, which the Greeks themselves would allow to be con- 
tracted to Dermotaxe, should be substituted; and then we 
should have Dermotaxisle for one who prepares skins, so as to 
make them represent the animals which they once covered. 
In many cases like the above ones, the Greeks disregarded 
the rules of their own language, and that, too, without gaining 
anything in euphony orntherwise, apparently. And the same 
did the Romans. Munericipiale they contracted, I perceive 
not for what reason, to Municipals ; Verticeale to Verticale ; 
and Radiceale to Radicale, &c, and for Sideral they wrote 
the barbarous word Sidereal. They wrote Equatoreal, and 
by the same rule they should have written Nationeale, Ralio- 
neale, &c. This rule I follow in our scientific terms. 

(36.) Our words nation, station, Sic, are made from the 
Latin plural nationes, stationer, and so onward, and I conti- 
nue the same practice ; and thus have Axe, Calyce, Analyse, 
and so forth, as the French do. And the plural of Latin and 
Greek names of their neuter gender and third declension, I 
consider as ending in es, and thus I have E there, Semine, 
Stamine, Legumine, Jure, &c. Or to express the same 
thing more generally, Latin and Greek names in their mas- 
culine and feminine gender, and third declension terminate 
usually in es ; for their plural number and nominative case ; 
and I consider their neuter names of the same declension 
as doing so too ; and thus I have the English plural ; and 
omitting the terminal s, I have our singular number for the 
same name. And for the terminal m and s of Latin names, 
and n and s of Greek ones in the singular number and of 
their first declension, I substitute e, and then by adding s I 
have the plural in English; and so I have Datues for data, 
Stratues for strata, and Phenomenoes instead of phenomena, 
&c. ; and often when a Greek neuter name ends in a vowel, 
for the singular number, the same is singular in English, as 
Derma ; and the genitive of it in composition I consider as 
Dermou or Dermo. And in a similar manner I treat some 
Latin names. 

MATHEMATICS. 

(37.) A little of our attention must now be given to the 
subject of Mathematics (1.); which, for the sake of con- 
venience, we consider upon the present occasion, as the 
second, among the three grand departments, here made, of 



28 MATHEMATICS. 

nature; and which imply, as heretofore, (1.) suggested the 
consideration of Magnitude, Number,'and Quantity. Arid, in 
each of these divisions of the subject before us, the whole 
business, essentially, of one there engaged, is, to Notate, Add 
and subtract ; and the Relations, there to be sought, are those 
of Form, Size and Position ; and either of these may be ac- 
cording to the circumstances, amid which, it is considered, 
Measurable, as, in the subject of magnitude, which we shall 
here term Megathology, or Perceptible, as in case of an equa- 
tion or Absolute, as Infinity itself. 

(38.) In Megathology, (37.) one's business is to Measure 
individual objects; or classes of objects, and from the consid- 
eration of them, it is, that he derives his idea, if he has one 
at all, of Unity ; and his mode of reasoning here, if he at- 
tempts to do so, will be generally the Synthetic (17.) one. 

(39.) The science of Number (37.) is called Arithmetics, 
and one's business in them is to Calculate ; and his method 
of reasoning there is the Synthetic — Analytic (17.); or syn- 
thetic in addition, and analytic in subtraction, 

(40.) Quantity (37.) may be Constant or Variable; and 
variation of any kind, whether increase or diminution, may 
be Definite or Indefinite ; and either of these kinds of it, 
•may be Constant, Periodic or Occasional. And thus consid- 
ered, the science of quantity is called Algebra, an arbitrary 
term, at this day, to us, at any rate, whatever its import may 
have been among the Arabians, who seem to have been the 
first to use it ; though it seems to have been conpounded of Al, 
and gebra, which latter word may have meant calculation, or 
have been a mere arbitary combination of letters, and in either 
case, the term in question, may be construed to mean, what 
it does in fact, the universal letter .method of calculation. 

And the functions of this algebra are to Compare quantities 
together ; and, one's method of reasoning here is, generally 
Analytic, (17.) 

(41.) In Pure mathematics (37.) as already defined, and, 
consisting as ihey are, of megathology, arithmetics and alge- 
bra, we have; 1st, Ordinary Calculations, such as the keep- 
ing of accounts, &c. ; 2d, Proportion, which, assumes an 
aspect different in some respects, from what it may have pre- 
viously exhibited, accordingly as it arises in megathology, 
arithmetics,or algebra, and; 3d, Trigonometry, which is a com- 
pound of the other two subjects, calculation and proportion 
just mentioned ; and which implies the measuring of angles, 
included occasionally, the lines of which they are constituted. 
And these angles, we haveTurther to observed here, appear in 
three, one from another, different forms ; 1st, the Rectulinear, 



MATHEMATICS. 29 

one properly so called, where two straight lines meet togeth- 
er ; 2d, the Spheric, one where the planes of two great circles, 
of one and the same sphere cross each other, or simply meet 
together, forming thus in reality, a rectilinear angle, though 
it does not pass by that name ; and, 3d, the Curvilinear one, 
where two lines, one at least of which is curved, meet togeth- 
er. And of this curvilinear angle, we have ; 1st, the Re- 
gular Mixed one, where a straight line meets or touches a 
curve of known curvature ; 2d, the Regular Curved one, 
where two curves of known, but not of one and the same cur- 
vature, meet or touch each other, and ; 3d, the Irregular one, 
where the equation or curvature of one, at least, of the touch- 
ing or meeting lines is not known. And all these angles can 
be measured or calculated, except the irregular one here men- 
tioned, which cannot be so, unless the lines of which it is 
formed are considered and treated as though they were 
straight ones. 

(42.) From each of these angles, (41.) which must be con- 
sidered as plain or simple ones, we can derive or form a com- 
pound or solid one. That the meeting together of many rectu- 
linear and plane angles, becomes a rectilinear and solid one 
is very obvious ; and at each end of a quarter or other section 
of a sphere, we shall have, very evidently, what may be de- 
nominated a solid spherical angle, and the solid convilinear 
angle, which may be formed pursuant to what we have just 
been saying, can be easily imagined ; and all these angles 
may be measured or calculated, as the plane ones of which 
we have spoken can be done so ; and, of course, it will fol- 
low that the solid angle formed of irregular plane ones, can- 
not be accurately compared with any thing else. 

(43.) In Trigonometry we have the ascertaining of the rel- 
ative position — 1st, Of any locomoving body, at any time 
given, as in case of Eclipses, Occultation, Meteors, &c, in 
the heavens above us ; 2d, Of One's self, while in locomo- 
tion, at any time, as in Navigation, Ballooning, or even in 
Common Traveling; and CJ, Of any permanent object, as in 
Geometrese, or common land surveying. And under the lat- 
ter head, we have — 1st, Objects connected with the surface 
of the earth, or body upon which w r e may happen to be loca- 
ted, and either coincident with that surface, or above or below 
it ; 2d, The objects in the concavity of the heavens above, 
and around us, and 3d, One from another different points upon 
or about these last mentioned objects— artd be it here added, 
that the second and third kind of surveying here spoken of, 
constitutes the most of what is called astronomy. 

3* 



30 MATHEMATICS. 

(44.) Strict accuracy is never expected in ordinary geome- 
trese. . The ground upon which the operator acts is always 
more or less uneven in this case ; and he is not presumed to 
use more than ordinary care in his measurements, in fact, the 
instruments most appropriate, all circumstances considered, 
for ordinary surveying, do not admit of any thing further than 
what is here suggested, nor does the case require it. In the 
great geometric survey which was commenced by Mr. Hass- 
ler, some forty years ago, and is now being continued under 
the superintendence of Mr, Bache, a citizen of Philadelphia, 
along the southeastern coast of our country, a base line is 
first measured, some ten or fifteen, or perhaps twenty miles 
long, with the utmost practicable accuracy ; and if a party of 
eight or ten individuals, and the operation requires at least as 
man)' as that, cannot accomplish this in one year, it is not to 
be considered as any wanton sacrifice of time or expense for 
them to continue their efforts in the work still longer — a re- 
mark that is intended to apprise the reader that the base line 
in question is all-important as the foundation of subsequent 
operations there. And, unless the reader should suppose I 
am considering this as an insulated case in mathematics, I 
will here digress for the moment, and direct his attention to 
the surveys for a rail-road or canal, and especially to those 
that have, been executed among the heavenly bodies, where 
equal accuracy is required. But we confine ourselves for the 
present to the line in question. It is reduced to the level of 
the ocean, and its length there ascertained — a long and labo- 
rious task for the closet mathematician. Upon each side of this 
line a triangle is formed, and its sides are calculated, and re- 
duced as the first one has been — and so the work is made 
to extend each way from the original base as far as may be 
thought proper ; and I have to add here that England and 
France, and some other countries of Europe, have beerf sur- 
veyed in this way ; and thus is. ascertained with great exact- 
ness the relative position of one from another different points 
upon the earth*s surface. 

(45.) The science of .mathematics is far ahead of those of 
ethics and physics, and especially of the latter. Of mathe- 
matics, Euclid gave the present world, the rudiments about 
250 years before our vulgar era, in his treatise upon mega- 
thology, called Euclid's Elements of Geometry. Much was 
then known in Arithmetics, and yet there was no convenient 
notation or characters adopted bymny of the people around the 
Mediterranean Sea, if elsewhere, in this branch of mathmatics, 
till some hundreds of years after the Christian era. Our 



PHYSICS. 31 

present ones are traceable to the Arabians, who might have 
borrowed them, though I do not know that they did so, from 
India. About 350 years after our common era, flourished Di- 
ophantus, who seems to have belonged to the Alexandrian 
school of scientific men ; and a work of his publication is the 
oldest one that has come down to us upon the subject of Al- 
gebra. The science of quantity or algebra was greatly ad- 
•vanced by Newton and Leibnitz, who generalized it almost 
completely — the first by his method of Fluxions, so called, 
which means an expression of the law or manner in which 
quantities may be supposed to have been generated, and the 
other, by what is precisely the same thing, his Calculus of Dif- 
ferences, and which has been almost, if not quite, perfected by 
Maclaurin, Euler, the] Bernoullis, and Lagrange; the latter 
perfecting, or at least advancing, an artifice which he called 
the Calculus of Variations, and which was then already par- 
tially understood for controlling or modifying the law that 
would otherwise naturally exist in a given variation — so that 
the generalizations in mathematics are now truly wonderful. 
And yet a universal method for solving- equations, as well as 
for integrating differential quantities, and perhaps I may add, 
an improvement in managing variable differences, are great 
desiderates ; though I perceive no reason to suspect their ex- 
istence. 

Capernicus commenced to generalize planetology, or as- 
tronomy — Newton and Leibnitz, mathematics — Jussicu, the 
elder, botany — Cuvier Letreille, and some others in France, 
zoology, — and it remains for somebody at this day to gene- 
ralize chemistry, and in fact all nature. 

PHYSICS. 

(4G.) Having done for the present with Mathematics and 
Ethics, we advance to Phyiics (1.) which, though really the 
first in order, as well as in magnitude and importance, and al- 
most, and yet, perhaps, not quite, (1.) the sole, we consider, for 
the sake of convenience here, as the third and the last grand 
department of Nature ; and which consist, as heretofore (1.) 
said of space and duration, as well as of the essentia, that 
occupies space and endures within it. As it will not be neces- 
sary for us, however, to speak here of space and duration un- 
der separate and distinct heads, but only in connection with 
essentia, we shall imagine all these three things to constitute 
one entire group, which becomes readily divisible into, 1st. 
Chemistry, whose business and object it is to ascertain the 
Characters of essentia; 2d. Mechanics, which properly un- 



32 PHYSICS. 

derstood, are a mere extension of chemistry, and embrace the 
Powers, Operations and Uses of essentia and 3d. Plane- 
tology, which implies the knowledge or description of Col- 
lections of it, as we find them spontaneously or naturally 
existing. And here let it be added, that planetology ap- 
plied to the sun, becomes Heliology ; to the moon, Se- 
lenology, and so for the other bodies in the heavens ; and 
consequently, applied to the earth upon which we reside, 
it becomes Geology, where we have, including the whole 
of it: 1st, Geography, which implies the description of 
the size, form and surface of the earth ; 2d. Georyctology, 
or the knowledge or description of the composition, struc- 
cture and general constitution of the earth ; and, - 3d, 
Bionologia, or the knowledge or description of the Biones, 
a general term for the vegetals and animals and other living 
beings, if other ones there are, upon or affecting it. And fur- 
ther let us add here, that of Bionologia we have : 1st, Botany, 
which might be written Botanology with strict propriety, if 
such were the custom respecting it, or the knowledge or de- 
scription of vegetals ; 2d, Zoology, or the knowledge or de- 
scription of animals ; and, 3d. Divinity, the very subject with 
which we here commenced, and thus we perceive what is 
meant by the circle of the sciences. 

The words Metaphysics, Philosophy and Natural History, 
and some others in vogue, do not belong to my vocabulary. 
Metaphysics means, if anything at all, after physics ; Philo- 
sophy, the wisdom of friendship ; and Natural History, some- 
thing, probably, in contradistinction to artificial history ; and 
what the latter means I leave for those to say who use these 
terms. 

(47.) Of Chemistry (46.) the object and business is, we 
have said, (46.) to ascertain the characters of essentia. And 
here let me observe that, as I do not perceive how essentia, 
as heretofore (1.) indicated, could have arisen from space and 
duration, or from either of them alone ; nor how it could ever 
originate, or be originated at all ; nor how it can ever be re- 
moved from space, or be even annihilated there, so as to cease 
to be, I conclude, for myself at least, leaving others to think 
as they may chance to do here, that it must have existed, and 
will continue to exist, like the space it occupies, eternally ! 
Nay, more ; we shall be enabled in the course of these re- 
marks to infer, incontestibly, that such must be, necessarily, 
the case in regard to it. And further, we shall prove here, 
that it must be co-extensive with space, as well as co-eternal 
with duration itself. 

(48.) Of Essentia (47.) we have two primary classes. 1st. 



CHEMISTRY MATERIAL. 33 

Inerte, or something that is wholly inert ; and, consequently, 
extended, solid and moveable ; and, 2d, Ethere, which is vul- 
garly called electricity, and whose particles are spheric, elas- 
tic and spontaneously vibratory. Combined together, inerte 
and ethere, become materia, or matter, which can never be 
divested of its ethere, so as to be brought, as inerte, to the test 
of our senses. All inerte ever was, and ever will be con- 
nected directly with ethere ; but all ethere is not connected 
directly, though it so indirectly, with inerte, and actuates it, 
and thus becomes the cause of whatever takes place in na- 
ture. As, therefore, we cannot see, hear, taste, smell or feel 
inerte, as such, we shall here speak of it only in connection 
with ethere, or as materia ; and for this purpqse we shall find 
it convenient, perhaps, to divide chemistry into, 1st. Chemis- 
try General, where a comprehensive view of the different kinds 
of essentia may be taken ; 2d. Chemistry Bionic, where the 
principal business of the one there engaged will be to analize 
Bionic substances, or such as are derivable only, either di- 
rectly or indirectly, frombiones ; and, 3d. Chemistry, Miner- 
alogic, or minicologic, or the examination of Minico, or min- 
eral substances, where, being presumed to have some general 
knowledge of what he may have in hand, he will find occa- 
sion to give his attention to its relative size, form, aspect, 
hardness, tenacity, fusibility, utility, and so forth. And of 
Chemistry General we shall have, including the whole of it, 
1st. Chemistry General Analytic and Experimental Material, 
where our business will be to ascertain what we can of the 
characters of Materia. 2d, Chemistry General Analytic and 
Experimental Ethereal, where we shall endeavor to show the 
characters and operations of ethere, and especially its agency 
in bringing together substances into more complicated ones ; 
and, 3d, Chemistry Synthetic, where we shall speak only of 
compound substances, as such, indicating, at the same time, 
as far as we can, how they became so, and how they may be 
conveniently named. And under the first of these three last 
mentioned heads, we have to observe that, of materia we find 
many kinds, and of these different kinds of materia, many 
are Etheriodo, a term which implies that they afford a passage 
for ethere over their surface ; while others of them are Ethe- 
riheder, which signifies that they afford a resting place upon 
their surface for ethere ; and others of them still, are Ethe- 
riatopo, w r hich imports that they afford neither a passage nor 
a resting place for it; and yet, remember, that none of them 
can be divested of that ethere which belongs to its constitu- 
tion. And, although there are many subordinate kinds of 



34 PHYSICS. 

materia, still it appears to us in two primary forms; 1st, As 
Biones, which will come under the head of Bionologia, (46.) 
and 2d, As Hylabias, or materia without life. And of 
these, Hylabias, we find, 1st. Mixtures and Aggregates, the 
doctrine of which may be termed Mictology ; and the most of 
which, such as Granite, and so forth, may be termed Litho- 
ples, and will come under the head of Goryctology, (46.) 
while the rest of them will find an appropriate place some- 
where under the general head of Chemistry ; and 2d. The 
Homogenes, or homogeneous substances. 

(49.) Of the Homogenes (48.) many, and perhaps the ma- 
jority, can be made to assume either of what is called the 
Solid, Liquid or Gaseous state. And moreover, they, are 
found, when liquid or gaseous, to unite together in various 
ways ; and they combine, when at all, in definite proportions ; 
and these proportions, being estimated by weight, are deno- 
minated Prime Equivalents, or simply Equivalents, expressed 
by the initial letters, Eq. ; and thus 8, is said to be the Eq. 
for Oxe, or oxygen, one of these homogenes, because that 
number expresses the least quantity by weight, remember, 
that will combine, in ordinary cases, at least, and, perhaps, in 
any case, with one of Hige, or hydrogen, another of these 
homogene substances ; and 6.12 is said to be the Eq. for 
Carbone, still another of them, because that number indicates 
the least weight of this last mentioned article, that will gene- 
rally combine with one of hige, or with 8 of oxe ; though to 
this law some exceptions, to be noticed at the proper time, 
are found. And when these homogenes are in the gaseous 
state, they combine, if at all, by equivalent volumes or 
measures. 

Frequently two or more substances, brought into juxtaposi- 
tion, one with the rest of them, will not combine at all ; but 
remain as they may happen to be situated or disposed : and 
this disposition, though attended sometimes by an actual co- 
hesion, which, so far as it goes, is a real combination of the 
substances in question, is, nevertheless, called a mixture, or 
aggregate ; and occasionally, as in the case of oil and water, 
or of many gases and oil, substances that are brought in juxta- 
position, as above suggested, will not become even mixed to- 
gether ; but this subject of myctology is included in the gen- 
eral one of the homogenes, as already remarked ; for while 
we observe that these substances can be made, amid the pro- 
per circumstances, to combine together, generally, in some 
way or other, and especially when reduced to the liquid or 
gaseous condition, we notice likewise, as a matter of course, 



CftEMISTltY MATERIAL. 35 

that in some instances they will not do so ; and the inquiry 
into the cause of either of these occurrences, involves, very 
naturally, the consideration of the other one. Many of the 
substances of which we are speaking, are found to assume, 
amid the proper circumstances, a definite form, which is 
called a Crystal ; and, in case they are not crystalized, they 
are said to be Amorphous, a term that implies, without regu- 
lar form. And the consideration of these things may be 
named Crystalology ; but these subjects will fall, very natur- 
ally, under the head of Chemistry, Mineralogic (48.) 

(50.) Of these Homogenes (49.) we have, 1st, Bionigena- 
bias, a term that implies lifeless things, such as Sachare or 
sugar, Lacte or milk, Alcohol and Acetue, and so forth, which 
are obtainable only, either directly or indirectly, from biones, 
and which will come under the head of Chemistry Bionic 
(48.)?; and 2d, the Minicoes, which term we make from the 
Greek Mna, writing it as the Romans did, Mina, from 
whence wo shall have Minicos, or Minico, or mineral, and 
which is thus intended to import any homogene substance, 
not bionic, whether found naturally existing in the earth, or 
arising artificially in the chemical laboratory. And remember 
that with us, a bionic substance is one that is not artificially 
synthezible but obtainable only either directly or indirectly 
from biones. 

(51.) Of the Minicoes (50.), as above defined, we have 
two groups ; 1st, the Minicoples, or compound minerals, such 
as Mica, Feldspar, &c, and 2d, the Hylaples, or simple sub- 
stances ; sixty-one, thus far discovered, in number, the inerte 
in each of which is probably variant, more or less, from that 
of the others, and which are thus denominated, not because 
they are supposed to be absolutely elementary, for we know 
they are compounds of inerte and ethere ; but because che- 
mists do not succeed in their efforts, and some have been 
made to reduce them to a more simple condition. And of 
these hylaples we shall now give, among other circumstances, 
respecting them, the Equivalents and specific gravities, or 
comparative weights, as we find the same in the books before 
us ; and these gravities, expressed by the initial letters, Gr., 
are compared, it should be here remembered, with that of 
water, which is taken while at the temperature of about 16 
Centigrade, as Unity or one. And here it may be relevant 
to add, perhaps, that, in many experiments of a physical cha- 
racter, the weight and temperature of the atmosphere in 
which they are made, should be taken into consideration ; 
but we need not to dwell upon this suggestion for the mo. 
merit. 



36 Physics. 

(52.) The Hylaples, (51.) or the substances now before us, 
are divisable into three groups; 1st. The Metals, forty-eight 
thus far detected, in number, whose obvious and general cha- 
racters are to have a shining aspect, and to be etheriodo ; 2d. 
The Blaceaples, or dull, simple substances, eight in num- 
ber ; and 3d. the Aereaples, or simple gases, five in num- 
ber, and probably if reduced to the solid or liquid state, 
these last metioned ones would prove to be neither metals 
nor blaceaples, but Diaphanaples ; though Hige, one of them, 
behaves, as we shall hereafter perceive in its combinations, 
like a metal. 

(53.) The metals(52.)are etheriodo and Etherireflectors, or 
reflectors of light and heat, and especially when .polished ; 
and of them we have three groups — 1st. the Precious ones, 
seven in number, which do not become exited, or combined 
withoxe at. any temperature to which the surface of the earth 
is now, at this day, naturally subjected. 2d. the Common 
ones, twenty-nine in number, which take oxe from the vapor 
of water more or less readily, at all temperatures above 100C. 
and generally at any one to which we are accustomed below 
it; and 3d. the Terrafiente ones, twelve in number, which 
combine very, readily w T ith oxe, and thus becomes earthy 
substances. * 

(54.) Of the Precious (52.) Metals we have, 1st. Platine, the 
heaviest of all known substances, compound or simple, silvery 
white, very ductile, and susceptible of being joined, one piece 
to another of it, in the well-known process of welding ; fu- 
sible only at a very high* temperature, and neither so plenty 
nor so valuable in market as gold is, though highly useful for 
several utensils, and especially in the chemical laboratory, 
Gr. 21,5 and Eq. 98,8. 2d. Aure, (or gold) yellow — the most 
ductile of all known substances of whatever description ; a 
pound of it being sufficient when beaten out to leaf, so called, 
to cover an area forty-five feet square, equal to 2,025 square 
feet, and used everywhere for money, Gr. 19,2, and Eq. 
199,2. 3d. Iride, (or iridium) scarce, whitish and fragile, 
and the most difficult to be fused of all the known metals, 
Gr. 18,68, and Eq. 98,8. 4th. Mercure, whitish and liquid, 
above the temperature of — 40C. Gr. 12,5, when liquid, and 14 
when frozen to solidity, and then it is ductile, Eq. 202. 5th. 
Palade, (or palladium) scarce, whitish, hard, ductile and weld- 
able, Gr. 11,5, and Eq. 53,3. 6th. Rode, (or rhodium) 
scarce, whitish, fragile and hard, Gr. 11, and Eq. 52,2 ; and 
7th. Silver, whitish and very ductile, and used everywhere 
for money, Gr. 10,5, and Eq. 108. 

(55.) Of the Common (53.) Metals we have three groups. 



CHEMISTY— MATERIAL, 37 

1st. the Common Ductile ones, seyen in number. 2d. the 
Common Fragile ones, eighteen in number ; and 3d. the 
Fragile and very Fusible ones, four in number. 

(56.) Of the Common Ductile (55.) Metals we have, 1st. 
Plumbe, (or plumbum, or lead) whitish gray and very flexible, 
Gr. 11,4, and Eq. 103,6. 2d. Cuper, (or copper) reddish 
yellow, Gr. 9, and Eq. 31,6. 3d. Cadme, (or cadmium,) 
whitish, Gr. 6,6. and Eq. 55,8. 4th. Nicale, (or nickel,) 
whitish, Gr. 8,5, and Eq. 29,5. 5th. Ferre, (or ferrum, or 
iron,) darkly grayish, hard to be fused, weldable, the most 
tenacious of all known substances, the most abundant and 
useful of all the known metals, and among the few of them that 
enter into the bionic systema, Gr. 7,8, and Eq. 28. 6th. 
Stane, (or stanum, or tin,) whitish, soft and flexible, Gr. 7,3, 
and Eq. 58,9 ; and 7th. Zinke, (or zincum, or zinc,) grayish, 
and but little ductile, Gr. 7, and Eq. 32,3. 

(57.) Of the Common Fragile (55.) Metals we have 1st. 
Tunge, (or tungstein) not plenty — darkish grey or of an iron 
aspect, Gr. 17,6, and Eq. 94,8. 2d. Osme, (or osmium,) ra- 
ther scarce than otherwise, and whitish, Gr. 10, and Eq. 99,7. 
3d. Urane, (or uranium,) scarce and blackish brown, Gr. 9, 
and Eq. 217. 4th. Molide, (or molybdenum) scarce and whit- 
ish, and hard to be fused, Gr. 8,6, and Eq. 47,7. 5th. Cobole, 
(or cobalt) reddish gray, Gr. 8,5, and Eq. 29,5. 6th. Man- 
gane, (or manganese) grayish white, Gr. 6, and Eq. 28. 7lh. 
Crome, (or chromium) yellowish white, Gr. 6, and Eq. 28. 
8th. Titane, (or titamium) scarce and brownish red, Gr. 5,3, 
and Eq. 24,3. 9th. Tantale, (or tantalium) very scarce and 
dark gray, Gr. ? and Eq. 185. 10th. Vanade, (or vanadium) 
very scarce and whitish, Gr. ? and Eq. 68,5. 11th. Cere, (or 
cerium) very scarce and whitish. Gr. ? and Eq. 46. 12th. 
Lantane (or lanthanium.) 13th, Dudime (or dydimium.) 14th, 
Niobe (or niobium.) 15th, Pelope (or pelopium.) 16th, Par- 
tene (or parthenium.) 17th, Erbe (or erbium,) and 18th, Ter- 
be (or terbium) ; but respecting these seven last mentioned 
ones not much is yet known. 

Of the Fragile and very Fusible (55.) Metals we have., 
1st, Bisme, (or bismuth) whitish red, Gr. 10, and Eq. 71,07. 
2d, Arsene, (or arsenic) grayish white and never liquid ; but 
passing, when sufficiently heated, directly from the solid 
to the gaseous state, Gr. 6, and Eq. 37. 3d, Stibe, (or sti- 
bium, or antimony) whitish gray, Gr. 5,7, and Eq. 64,6 ; and 
4th, Telure, (or tellurium) not plenty, greyish white, Gr. 6, 
and Eq. 64,2. 

(58.) Of the Terrafiente (53.) Metals we have three minor 
4 



38 PHYSICS. 

groups. 1st, the Acaliulafiente ones, five in number, which 
united with oxe, become the proper earthy substances, or what 
we shall here term the Alcaliulas. 2d, the Alcalisemifiente 
ones, four in number, which united with oxe, become the Al- 
calisemies, as we shall here denominate them ; and 3d, the 
Alcalifiente ones, three in number, which, united with oxe r 
become the proper Alcalies. 

(59.) Of the Alcaliulafiente (58.) Metals, we have, 1st, 
Thorine, (or thorinum) not plenty, gray and fragile, Gr. ? and 
Eq. 59,6. 2d, Itire, (or yttrium) scarce and fragile, grayish 
black, Gr. ? and Eq. 32,2. 3d. Zircone, (or zirconium) gray- 
ish black, not abundant, fragile, Gr. ? and Eq. 33, 7. 4th, 
Glucine, (or glucinium) not abundant, grayish black and fra- 
gile, Gr. ? and Eq. 26,5 ; and 5th, Argile, (or argillium, or 
aluminium,) abundant every where in common clav, gray and 
fragile, Gr. ? and Eq. 13,7. 

(60.) Of the Alcalisemifiente (58.) Metals, we have, 1st, 
Magnese, (or magnesium) white and ductile, Gr. ? and Eq. 
12,7. 2d. Calce, (or calcium) very abundant here and there 
in limestone, and whitish, Gr. ? and Eq. 20,5. 3d, Stronte, (or 
strontium) rather scarce, and white, Gr. 1 and Eq. 43,8 ; and 
4th, Bare, (or barium) not abundant, white, Gr.? and Eq. 87,38. 

(61.) Of the Alcalifiente (58.) Metals, which are very light 
and fusible, and of a whitish color, we have, 1st, Lithe, (or 
lithium,) Gr. ? and Eq. 6,44. 2d, Sode, (or sodium) weldible, 
Gr. 0,972, and Eq, 23,3 ; and 3, Cale, (or kalium, or potas- 
sium,) Gr. 0,865, and Eq. 39,15. 

(62.) Of the Blaceaples (52.) we have, 1st. Selene, (or 
selenium) not abundant, reddish brown, Gr. 4,3, and Eq. 
39,6. 2d, Carbone, passing, when properly heated like arsene, 
from the solid, not to the liquid, but directly to the gaseous 
state, which is true, in fact, of most of these blaceaples, Gr. 
of the diamond, the only specimen of pure carbone known, 
3,5, and Eq. 6,12. 3d. lode, (or iodine) dark purple, with a 
metallic aspect ; never liquid — found in the algas or sea- 
weeds—not abundant, Gr. 3, and Eq. 126,3. 4th, Silone, (or 
silicon, or silicium,) very abundant every where in quartz ; 
never liquid, I think — darkish brown, Gr. ? and Eq. 22,5. 
5th, Brome, (or bromine) not abundant— found in sea-water, 
and also in the algas — liquid above the temperature of about 
— 16C., yellowish, fetid and pungent, Gr. 3, and Eq. 78,4. 6th, 
Borone, (or boron) darkish brown, Gr. 2, and Eq. 10,9. 7th, 
Sulphur, whitish yellow; etheriheder, becoming liquid when 
properly heated, Gr. 1,99, and Eq. 16,1 ; and 8th, Phosphor, 
(or phosphorus) rather scarce, yellowish white — liquifiable 
and very combustible, Gr. 1,17, and Eq. 31,4. 



CHEMISTRY — MATERIAL. 39 

Of the Aeraples, (51.) we have, 1st, Clore, (or chlorine) 
greenish and pungent, and abundant in the ocean, Gr. 
0,00307, and Eq. 35,42. 2d, Fluor, (or fluorine) scarce, Gr. 
0,00158, and Eq. 18,68. 3d, Oxe, (or oxygen) abundant in 
our atmosphere, in the water, and also in the crust of the 
earth, Gr. 0,00136, and Eq. 8. 4th, Niter, (or nitrogen,) 
abundant in the atmosphere around us, Gr. 0,00119, and Eq. 
14,15 ; and 5th, Hige, (or hydrogen) abundant in water, and 
the lightest of all known kinds, simple or compound, of ma- 
teria, Gr. 0,00085, and Eq. 1. And for the equivalent of any 
compound substance we have only to add together the relative 
weights of the ingredients of one of its particles. As for ex- 
ample, one weight of hige and eight of oxe united together, 
become a particle of the well-known substance, water, and 
therefore the equivalent of the latter is nine. 

I have here terminated the names of all the hylaples, in 
e or r, a provision for the application of my nomenclature, 
and their penultimate syllable should be accented. 

(63.) For the name of these Hylaples, we shall have oc- 
casion frequently to use one or more of its initial letters ; 
thus, Ar, for Argile, Ars, for Arsene, Au, for Aure ; 
Ba, for Bare ; Bis, for Bisme ; B, for Borone, Br, for 
Brome ; Cad, for Cadme ; Ca, for Calce ; Cal, for Cale ; C, for 
Carbone ; Ce, for Cere ; CI, for Clore ; Cr, for Crome ; Co, 
for Cobole ; Col, for Columbe ; Cu, for Cuper ; D, for Du- 
dime ; F, for Fluor ; Fe, for Ferre ; G, for Glucine ; H, for 
Hige; I, for lode ; Ir, for Iride ; It, for I tire ; L, for Lithe; 
L an, for Lantane ; Mag, for Magnese ; Man, for Mangane ; 
Mer ; for Mercure ; Mol, for Molide ; N, for Niter ; Ni, for 
Nicale ; Nio, for Niobe ; Os, for Osme ; Pal, for Palade ; P, 
for Phosphor ; Pel, for Pelope ; Par, for Partene ; PI, for Pla- 
tine ; R, for Rode; S, for Sulphur; St, for Stibe; Sta, for 
Stane ; Str, for Stronte ; Se, for Selene ; Si, for Siione ; Sil, 
for Silver; Stan, for Stane ; Te, for Telure ; Tun, for Tun- 
gene ; U, for Urane ; V, for Yanade ; Zin, for Zinke ; Zir, 
for Zircone. 

(64.) It is easily demonstrated, we think, that there can be 
no particles of essentia around us, or any where else, in fact, 
that are incapable of being further divided, or, in other words, 
divide a portion of any kind of essentia, into never so many 
parts, and each of the same will have all the important char- 
acters of the original portion of it thus divided. A parellelopi- 
pedo, which includes the cube and the rombo, as the parallelo- 
grama does the square and the rombic surface, may be 
obviously divided into eight smaller and similar ones ; and 



40 PHYSICS. 

hence, we perceive that the particles of essentia, may have a 
definite form ; and crystalization indicates that those of ma- 
teria have so in fact ; but they can have no definite or perma- 
nent magnitude. If they had any magnitude at all, they would 
have to be frequently divided and sub-divided, in the forma- 
tion of compounds, which are constantly taking place among 
them ; and the fragments thus resulting would have become, 
long since numerous ; and, if these fragments had not all the 
essential characters, and properties of the original portion 
from whence they arose, we should be able, by this time, as 
I should suppose, to observe the circumstances ; but no ra- 
tional physican suspects any such thing. The particles of 
essentia being, thus, infinitely small, must result individually, 
in what may be considered, practically Nothing, to be sure ; 
though in the mass they are certainly Something, and occupy 
each a portion of space, excluding all others therefrom. 

If, by the term Atomo, is meant no more than something 
that has not been cut or divided, then we may have Atomoes 
of essentia ; but, if by it we mean something that cannot be 
cut or divided at all, then there is no such thing any where 
in nature, as an essential atomo. It will do to speak of por- 
tions and of particles, and even of original particles ; but not 
of atomoes, when by that word is meant indivisible portions 
of essentia. 

Again, the prime equivalents which we have given above, 
of one from another, different substances are seldom express- 
ed, as will be readily perceived in whole numbers, or in other 
words, they are expressed for the most part in numbers that 
consist of more or less intire units, and of an interminable 
fraction of a unit ; and, of course there will be in such cases, 
an infinite division of the substances concerned. To be short 
here, let this subject be presented as it maybe, the impossi- 
bility of the existence of essential atomoes, or indivisible 
essential things will become, I think fully apparent. 

(65.) For my nomenclature, I modify the Latin numerals 
thus, n which always has some vowel before it, means, one; 
bi, two ; ter, three ; qua, four ; qui, five ; si, six ; se, seven ; 
oce, eight ; no, nine ; dece, ten, &c. ; terbi, three to two, or 
sesqui, and for this term I substitude y, pronounced wi ; nbi, 
one to two ; biter, two to one, &c. ; Be, a contraction of base 
implies any Viporectue, or electropositive substance : and 
S, Renorectue, or electronegative one; Besate, any du- 
ple compound that is acid, or acts like an acid, and Besite, 
one that is not so : and Bebesate, any compound salt. A 
Beoxite, is any oxite or oxide : a Beclorite, any cloride ; a 



CHEMISTRY MATERIAL. 41 

Beoxate, is any oxacid : and a Beclorate, any cloracid. The 
ultimate a in Beoxita or beoxata, denotes the first oxition of 
that Be : and so in other similar cases, as Beclorita, &c, 
where the same a denotes the first clorition, &c. The ulti- 
mate e in Beoxite, denotes any indefinite oxition of that Be ; 
and so in other like cases : as Beclorite, &c. ; where the e 
denotes any indefinite clorition of that Be. The ultimate o in 
Beoxito, implies the only known oxition of that Be, &c. The 
ultimate i in Beoxiti, an intermediate oxition of that Be, &c, 
and u in Beoxitu, the ultimate oxition of that Be, &c. And 
hence, if we write Calea, Sodea, Ferrea, &c. we express the 
first oxition of Cale, Sode, Ferre, &c. That of Cuper, be- 
ing a dioxite, will be Curperanbi. If we write Litheo, Mag- 
neso, &c, we indicate the only oxition of Lithe and Magnese, 
<fcc. Cuperi denotes that the one to one oxite of cuper, is an 
intermediate one — its 1st, being Cuperanbi, and its last Cu- 
perubi. If we write Boroneoter, for which Borace may be 
substituted, we denote by the o there, the only oxition of 
Borone, and by the ter, that the same is a teroxite, and so of 
Siloheoter, for which Silice may be substituted. Argileoterbi 
or Argileoy, will import, 1st, the only oxition of Argile, and, 
2d, that the same is a terbi — and so of Glucineoterbi or 
Glucineoy, or t in other words, and more particularly, when 
oxe is combined with a base, without rendering the same 
acid, the two syllables, oxit, may be omitted from the name : 
and thus, we shall have Corbonea, for Corboneoxita, or car- 
bonic oxide, Ferrea for Ferreoxita, or the first oxite of iron, 
which exists in coperas, though it is said to have never been 
insulated. And so we shall have Calea for Caleoxita, or Pot- 
ash, and Sodea for Sedeoxitaor Soda : Litheo for Litheoxito, 
or lithia : the terminal o, meaning here, that there is but one 
known oxition of Lithe : and as no numeral is added in either 
of these cases, we know that the proportion of the ingredients, 
there is one to one. And so we have Magneseo, for Mag- 
neseoxito, or Magnesia: Calcea, for Calceoxita, or lime; 
Strontea, for Stronteoxita or strontia : Barea, for Bereoxita or 
barytes ; Argileoterbi, or Argileoy for Argileoxitoterbi, or 
alumina : Glucineoterbe, or Glucineoy for Glucineoxitoterbi, 
or glucinia, Zirconeoterby or Zirconeoy, for Zireoneoxitoter- 
bi or Zirconia, and Thorineo for Thorineoxito or Thorinia, 
and Itireo, for Itereoxito or Yttna 

In the case of acids ; the syllables oxat, should be express- 

ed ; and thus, we shall have Carboneoxatubi, for carbonic 

acid ; the terminating bi, meaning that two equivalents of oxe, 

are combined with one of carbone ; the previous u, the ultimate 

4* 



42 PHYSICS. 

oxition of carbone, and the a before the t, that the compound 
is acid. From the name of compound salts, however, this oxate 
may be omitted ; and thus, we shall have Calceacarboneubi, 
for Calceacorboneoxatubi or carbonate of lime, and Aquasul- 
phuruter for Aquasulphuroxatuter, or sulphuric acid, and 
Aquaphosphoruqui for phosphoric acid, and Aquaniteruqui, for 
nitric acid, and Zinkeasulphuruter for the sulphat of zinc, and 
Ferreasulphuruter for the sulphat of iron, &,c. 

Cuperanbi is cuperoxite, one to two ; Cuperi, one to one, 
and intermediate between the other, and Cuperubi, which is 
two to one, and ultimate of Cuper. Cuperisulphuruter is sul- 
phat of copper ; Nitera, is the first ; Niteribi, the second, and 
Niteriter the third oxite of Niter ; and Niteroxatiqua is nitrous 
acid, &c. 

(66.) We pass now to the Chimistry General Analytic and 
Experimental Ethereal (47) ; or, in other words, to the consi- 
deration of Ethere. And of this kind of essentia, we have 
two primary classes ; 1st, Vipo, a term that will remind us 
of what is usually called vitreous and positive electricity ; — 
and 2d, Reno, which term will serve to put us in mind of res- 
inous and negative electricity. These two etheres— and we 
do not call them substances, for there is nothing substantial 
in the proper sense of that word about them— never Repel at 
all, not even their own kind, for there is no such thing as a 
spontaneous and original repulsion in nature ; but they seek 
each the most tempting quantity of the other, and also inerte, 
provided the latter is within their reach ; and, hence, I call 
them, occasionally, Bipetentes, or seeking two objects at one 
and the same time ; and thus they are kept in a state of in- 
conceivably rapid and short vibration, which never commen- 
ced, can never cease, or be essentially varied. 

Combined together, vipo and reno become what we shall 
here name Calore, which is comparatively, and yet not per- 
fectly, quiescent, and of which every substance has its own 
peculiar or specific kind, and never gives it wholly up or 
away amid any circumstances whatever ; and which calore is 
equally distributed, or nearly so, unless accidentally and tem- 
porarily otherwise, in given localities, throughout all space. 
A unitense vibration which still continues in it, for remember 
that the particles of ethere are always vibrating toward and 
from each other, becomes Gravitation ; and a disturbance 
there, occasioned by the separation and recombination of dif- 
ferent quantities, here and there, of the constituents of this 
calore, is light to the eye, as one in the atmosphere above and 
around us — is sound to the ear. The proportion in which 



CHEMISTRRY ETHEEAL. 43 

these two ethers are combined for the calore of space, is, 
probably, nay we may say even, certainly, not the same as it 
is for that of any substance, nor for the specific calore 
of one substance, the same exactly as it is for that 
of another. And yet, a collection of materia now in 
the Gaseous state, may become Liquid or Solid by yielding 
out a portion of its ethere, or calore, which entering, may ex- 
pand another collection of it, that is already liquid or solid ; 
and thus, as one mass of materia contracts, a neighboring one 
may become enlarged in dimensions ; but the whole of 
existing materia can never be, at one and the same time, we 
assume here, in either the solid, liquid or gaseous condition ; 
and that too, for the simple reason that it is not so now ; and 
if it were so now, it could never be otherwise ; an assump- 
tion, to be sure, but almost an axioma ; and if the phenome- 
noes of nature can be explained pursuant to definite and spe- 
cified assumptions, and not otherwise, the conclusion becomes 
irresistable, according to the rules of analytic reasoning, that 
such assumptions are the real truth, so far as they go ; and 
at this truth we are now aiming to arrive. 

A number of particles in a straight line along within the 
calore of space, may be represented thus , vrvrvr, &c ; and, 
such a line of particles within or through any mass of mate- 
ria, may be thus represented : v (virvirvirvirvir, &c.,) r ; 
v, meaning vipo, r, reno, and i, inerte. And, furthermore, 
every particle of vipo will tend to have one of reno, and 
every particle of reno, one of vipo upon every side of itself, 
throughout all space ; a necessary consequence too of their 
seeking each other ; and yet the particles of vipo or reno, 
may be, and probably are, larger in one than they are in ano- 
ther substance, and larger or smaller in any substance than 
they are in the calore of space ; and, hence, there can be no 
termination of them in any direction ; and furthermore still, 
it will follow from what we have assumed above, to be the 
character and the properties of the two kinds of essentia, 
that every particle of inerte in the universe will tend to have 
a particle of vipo upon one, and of reno upon its opposite 
side. 

We have said, that calore, whether of space, or of any 
substance, is comparatively quiescent, and yet a small vibra- 
tion continues there ; and the same is Gravitation ; for re- 
member, that the very character of ethere is to seek amid all 
conditions its opposite kind, or bipetente, as we say occa- 
sionally, and also inerte, if the latter is near it, and not al- 
ready saturated with the same kind of thing ; and a distur- 
bance in this calore, as above specified, and especially in that 



44 PHYSICS. 

of space, gives rise to a vibration which extends to the eyes, 
as one in our atmosphere or in water, does to the ears of an- 
imals that have those organs at ali, and are properly situated 
to be thus affected. 

The exterior particle of the calore, which belongs to the 
earth, for example, is connected, for the moment, while that 
body is passing, with the one of the calore of space immedi- 
ately above it ; and this latter with the next one of space 
above it, and so onward, to the sun, or other collection of ma- 
teria, in a continued chain, the vibrations of which are tend- 
ing constantly to bring any such two bodies together ; and 
forget not here that the number of such chains is great, if 
not infinite ; and that, as they shorten, their links are re- 
moved without the least diminution of their strength. And it 
is easily shown by a diagrama, which will be given hereaf- 
ter, in Mechanics (46,) that this attraction will be as the num- 
ber of particles of inerte, or, what is the same thing here, as 
the whole inertia, in both of such collections of materia, di- 
rectly, and as the square of the distance of their centers apart 
inversely. And thus the law of Gravitation, which has been 
hitherto ascertained only experimentally, may be demonstra- 
ted synthetically ; and, bear in mind here, that ethere has no 
inertia of its own for causing or resisting the least possible 
traction. It must have something substantial upon which to 
hold, in order to pull in the least degree ; and hence, we 
perceive, the truth of what we have already intimated, that 
beyond the farthest ethere, there must be materia, and beyond 
this materia there must be ethere again — and so onward forev- 
er, in ali directions from any given position ; or, in other 
words, essentia must be co-extensive with space, as well as 
co-eternal with duration itself. If it were ever originated at 
all, from blank nihility, it must have been done so all at 
once ; and what had the originating power been previously 
doing : Remember that backward, as well as forward, from 
any epocha, is endless or forever ; and during this forever, the 
power in question must have had more leisure than any of us, 
active beings as we are, would be likely to desire ; and we can- 
not conceive how this power, call it what you please, if it 
possesses reason like ours, could have been thus very well 
contented ; or, in other words, It, or He must have been, if 
he existed at all in this duration, either asleep or very unhap- 
py, neither of which suppositions will be generally tolerated 
in any community of rational beings ; nor even that the time 
ever was when he did not exist. In short, the power of 
which we are speaking, must have originated essentia, if he 
did so at all, immediately after he became conscious of his 



CHEMISTRY ETHEREAL. 45 

own existence ; but all people are taught to believe that the 
time never was when he was not so conscious ; and therefore 
ibe time never was when he originated essentia — but the lat- 
ter does actually exist; and no one contends, to my knowl- 
edge, that it arose spontaneously from blank nihility ; and 
consequently it had no commencement, and we have said 
enough above to show that it can have no end. 

Again, if essentia is to be ever annihilated, it will have to 
be done so all at once, for there can be no considerable vacuities 
in space while any essentia exists at all. And beside all 
this, what will the annihilator of it find to do subsequently 
to the event thus supposed 1 We have already shown what 
he would then find to do ; he might fall into a death-like, 
dreamless sleep. And yet I dispute the physical possibility 
of such a thing ; and in the course of these remarks, we shall 
come upon evidence still more obvious, if possible, than the 
above is, both of the eternity and universality of essentia. 

The attraction of which we have spoken here, appears, 
first, as Dyname Chimic, or the power which brings together 
particles of materia into one homogene mass, and holds 
them so ; and this dyname chimic, becomes itself modi- 
fied into dyname mechanic, which consists of the three great 
mechenical powers, Gravitation, Cohesion, and Elasticity"; 
for there are but few, if any substances, wholly destitute of 
even the latter property, and none apparently of the other 
two ; for something like cohesion is generally admitted to ex- 
ist, amid the proper circumstances, even in vapor ; and further- 
more, these two dynames, chimic and mechanic, become 
united and compounded together into Dyname Bionic, or the 
power that brings together, and thus supports, a portion of the 
Hylaples, and only nineteen of the sixty-one that are known 
of them, have been hitherto detected there in the form of a 
bione ; and the simplest character in which this dyname bio- 
nic appears to us, is called Instinctue, or instinct ; or mere 
life and growth. In the lower animals it exhibits the addi- 
tional aspects of Sensation and Locomotion ; in the higher 
ones, below man, we find still further thought and memory ; 
and in him appears, moreover, Reason and Knowledge ; and 
how far, if in any respect, and by what, if by any thing at 
all, these two etheres have to be varied for occasioning what 
we observe in biones, we shall omit all inquiries till we shall 
have come to the subject of bionologia (46.). 

Vipo is found to have a greater control than reno has, over 
some substances — Cale, or the metal of potash, for example ; 
and, on the other hand, reno has, more completely than vipo 
has, in its power, many kinds of substance — Oxe for instance, 



46 



PHYSICS. 



or in other words, cale is said to be electropositive, and oxe 
electronegative ; and hence, we shall have the terms Vipo- 
rectue, which implies governed by vipo, for expressing an 
electropositive substance, and Renorectue, which signifies 
controled by reno, for indicating an electronegative one. Flu- 
or enters into combination with not many substances, but 
when it does so at all, it seems to be more energetically reno- 
recte than oxe is. And here, remember that cale readily sur- 
renders an equivalent of reno, but never a whole one of vipo ; 
and, on the other hand, oxe is generally willing to part 
with an equivalent of vipo, but never with a whole one of re- 
no. Many other substances become viporectue in regard to 
one, and renorectue to another substance. 

The sensation of Heat, as that word is used in common 
parlance^ is caused by reno combining with the vipo of the 
animal that feels it. In short, this reno is there fighting with 
its like, for the contented associate of that like, just as one 
male or female among animals is found sometimes to contend 
with another for his or her sexual partner ; or, heat consists 
in the accumulation of reno, and cold, in the absence of it ; 
or, in a redundancy of uncombined vipo. The great power, At- 
traction of Nature, we repeat here, results necessarily from the 
simple circumstances that the two grand classes, vipo and re- 
no, of ethere possess an inherent tendency to seek each, the 
other one, and also inerte, at one and the same time ; and 
that, too, in a manner analogous to what is observable betwixt 
the two sexes of animals, and I may say here, of biones 
generally; and, certainly, the reader will not require to be 
now reminded that the sexes in question seek, according to 
circumstances, sometimes, each the other, in preference to 
sustenance; and then again sustenance^ and even ordinary con- 
veniences, in preference to such other one of them. And to 
show all this, and much more of the same general character, 
advantageously, I shall turn to an Apparatue Ethereal ; and 
here I have to add, that such apparatues may be conveniently 
divided into three classes : 1st, the Apparatue Ethereal Acci- 
dental, or any accidental thing where only one kind of ethere, 
which may be either vipo or reno, according to the article ad- 
verted to, appears, and is usually supposed to be active ; 2d, 
the Apparatue Ethereal Commune, or common electric ma- 
chine, where both kinds of it are obviously so ; and 3d, the 
Apparatue Ethereal Galvanic, or Voltaic, where vipo alone 
appears, at first sight, to be concerned. And, in all these 
cases, we shall point out the part which each of these two 
kinds of ethere takes in the phenomenoes there observed. 



CHEMISTRY — ETHER1AL. 47 

(67.) The nucle of the sun and stars consists of materia, 
much of which is, probably, variant from any that is found in 
the earth ; and this nucle is highly Renosede, or affording a 
resting place for reno, while the planets are Viposede, or af- 
fording a resting place for vipo, and consequently vipo con- 
centrates upon these last mentioned bodies, while reno does so 
upon the others ; and the polar regions of the earth are no 
more a criterion of the temperature of space than the sun is. 

The comets appear to be etheriheder generally, exhibiting 
no more partiality for vipo than they do for reno ; and all this 
may be considered, perhaps, as purely accidental. The tele- 
scope brings to view several clusters of two or more lumin- 
ous, and consequently renosede bodies, revolving around a 
common center, and that center may be an opaque or vipo- 
sede body. 

And admitted the sun's nucle to' be no less, and we have 
good reasons for believing it to be more dense than the earth 
is, the reno in which the former is enveloped, must he, as may 
be easily calculated, something like a hundred thousand miles 
high ; and the particles of this reno must be, remember, in 
ceaseless motion, vibrating back and forth upon each other. 
A portion of it attacks the calore of the space beyond it, 
drives out the reno of that calore, and takes possession of its 
vipo, and this last particle of reno, thus expelled, does tho 
same to the next one of calore there, in a perfectly straight 
line, till finally, in the course of eight minutes, probably — for 
although we know, or think we know, the velocity of reflect- 
ed light, still we are not absolutely sure that the same is true 
in regard to the direct light from any self luminous body — 
a particle of reno is evolved at the surface of the earth, for 
example, and combining with vipo there, neutralizes it in ca- 
lore, and thus the planets are heated by having their cold, or 
vipo satiated and removed. This calore, thus formed, will 
vibrate upon its neighbor, and this latter upon its neighbor, and 
so onward, in a straight line from the moon to the earth. suppose, 
effecting animal eyes,but evolving no reno there ; and thus we 
perceive why there is no heat in the rays of the planets; that of 
the stars mustbe something, and yetitisquiteimperceptible. In 
order to be distinctly understood here, let us repeat that there 
will be, very naturally, and perhaps, necessarily, in the regions 
of space, a particle of reno here, and one of vipo there, that is 
not connected with its opposite bipetente in the comparatively 
quiescent state of calore ; and these will naturally tend the 
vipo to some planet, and the reno to the sun or a star, for a 
resting place ; and thus, the quantity of reno becomes so 






48 PHYStCS. 

great upon these last mentioned bodies, that no portion of it can 
rest there quietly ; but, being perfectly elastic, its particles are 
constantly vibrating towards and from each other, and its exte- 
rior ones upon the calore beyond them there ; and, in search of 
the vipo of that calore, they will expel its reno, which, does 
the same to the next particle of calore, and so onward, as al- 
ready specified ; and the last particle of reno evolved at the 
surface of any planet, carries off in quiscent calore a portion 
of the free vipo which will be likely to be found there, and 
this particle of calore, thus formed, will vibrate upon the next 
one, and so onward, to another planet, causing light, but no 
heat there, as no reno is there set free ; and remember that 
calore, as such, neither causes the sensation of heat, nor 
enters any substance, though its constituents, vipo and reno, 
do enter all substances separately ; and, remember, general- 
ly, that the specific calore of one substance, or of space, will 
not answer without modification, for another. One body 
would, doubtless, receive, in case it could obtain all the reno 
of another, or of a portion of space ; but it would be likely 
to require, at the same time, either more or less than all the 
vipo there ; and these two etheres would have to enter such 
body separately, and there arrange theirselves in their own 
way. 

We have shown how light comes from bodies generally 
— how heat comes from the sun — and why there is no 
heat in the rays of the planets : they are Lucireflectors, but 
not Estureflectors. Their beams consist, not like those of the 
sun and stars, of the uncombined constituents of calore, but, of 
calore in the comparatively quiescent state. What is observ- 
able when light is made to pass through a prismo of any des- 
cription indicates that vipo is more refrangible than reno is, 
and also that there are many subordinate kinds in each of the 
two grand classes of ethere — subjects to which we shall 
again advert hereafter, under the general head of Mechanics 
(46.) and the minor one of Lucireflection (68.) 

Every mechanican, who is really such, well knows that the 
Solirotationeluce, or the light of the sun's rotation, which is 
usually named the Zodiac Light, is not the effect of dyname 
mechanic — while the real chimiste must readily perceive that 
it is so, of dyname chimic The sun's rotation is evidently 
the cause of this phenomenoe, and yet no impulse or centri- 
fugal force enters directly into it. Ethere, which is probably 
mostly reno, ascends in its free state from the sun, and more 
abundantly and higher from his equatorial than from his polar 
regions. The rotation of a body in the regions of space af- 



CHEMISTRY ETHEREALE- 49 

fects, very probably, the calore around itself in some respects, 
as that of one does a fluid in which it may happen to be thus 
moving. In short, any body rotating in space maybe consid- 
ered as analogous, perhaps, to the moving cylinder or plate of 
glass, in the apparatue ethereal commune. The beams from 
the sun's equatoreal, are, doubtless, more powerful than are 
those from his polar regions ; and, accordingly, we perceive 
that this solirotationiluce, rising as it is from his equatoreal 
regions, assumes a conic form. 

(69.) The ethere of a comet, principally vipo, seeking its 
opposite bipetente, may draw that comet toward the sun ; and 
more so after than before the former body passes its perihe- 
lio ; for the activity of these two etheres is still increasing — 
and the difference betwixt these tractions will cause the com- 
et to contract its orbit, and thus to shorten the period of its 
revolution ; and so we solve that great enigma in plan- 
etology, the acceleration which has been observed, or sup- 
posed, to exist in the movement of some of these bodies. — 
And while this vipo draws the comet along to meet the reno 
from the sun, the reno which had been connected with that 
vipo, and thus given rise to the comet's specific calore, passes 
oft in the opposite direction, and that, too, for the purpose of 
becoming neutralized, as best it can be again with a new 
quantity of vipo: and sometimes it proceeds more than a 
hundred millions of miles before it becomes fully so ; and 
the disturbance it causes in the calore of space, appears in 
streams of light. This reno will turn in any direction where 
it finds the most free vipo, and hence the curvature which of- 
ten appears in the trains of comets. And to the question, 
should it be asked, why are not the ordinary planets of our so- 
lar system a affected in this way 1 we answer, they are not suffi- 
ciently vipous to be perceptibly drawn beyond their usual 
gravitation toward the sun ; and remember here, that this re- 
ceding reno cannot draw the comet in question away from the 
sun, because it finds nothing substantial upon which to hold, 
and has no inertia of its own for pulling in the least. And from 
what we have just been saying, we have, at once, the solution 
of another great enigma in planetology— why the bodies of 
our solar systema move, as they are found to do, in a direction 
more or less oblique, across the equator of the one around 
which they revolve. They were drawn into that position by 
their own reno, seeking the vipo from the polar regions of the 
one from whence they were thrown, as we shall explain and 
show more fully hereafter, under the head of planetology. 
5 



50 PHYSICS. 

Some of the comets have been so much disturbed in this 
way as to move retrograde. 

(70.) We have now to advance six propositions ; and, 1st, 
A quantity of vipo in pursuit of reno, is constantly following 
the rays of any sun or self luminous body, along upon the 
surface of every rotating and viposede one that revolves around 
him. 2d, This vipo elevates the water at the present day, 
about one-third of a mile higher at the Southern than it is at 
the Northern pole of the earth. 3d, It raises the water 
against the Trade Winds several feet higher upon the West- 
ern than it is at the Eastern side of the Isthmus of Darien. 
4th. It makes the Eastern colder than is the Western side of 
every body of land which rises above the water upon the 
earth's surface. 5th. It controls the Indicevipote, or magnet- 
ic needle in all respects, and gives rise to the Aurorapolares ; 
and the same we shall thus proceed to demonstrate : and, 
first, that this current of vipo is actually passing spirally 
around the earth, is proved by the experiments of Oersted, 
Ampere and Arago ; but they did not know the cause of it. 

Again — vipo will take reno much more rapidly from water 
than it does from dry land, or from earthy substances ; and 
hence the reason why the surface of an island will be, as we 
know it is, always warmer at noon-day, during its summer time, 
than is that of the ocean immediately around it. And further- 
more, as the particles of this vipo which follows the sun's beams 
around upon the earth's surface, become neutralized, and pass 
off in calore, others will rush into their place, for the same 
prize ; and so the vipo in question becomes a current, we 
shall call it here, increasing both in force and quantity as it 
moves over water ; and, thus increased, it comes to a piece of 
dry land, and carries off the reno there very rapidly at first, 
but, as land is more tenacious of its reno than water is, our 
current of vipo, succeeding not well in its efforts to be neu- 
tralized, becomes less and less active without being rein- 
forced to any considerable extent, as it now moves onward 
there — and thus ceasing partially to exert its energies so dis- 
advantageously, as it finds itself obliged to do, if it acts at all 
upon such land, it hastens to the distant water in prospect, 
where, being arrived, it becomes energetic again ; and so we 
perceive the reason why the Western should be, as it really 
is, always warmer than is the Eastern side, upon a given par- 
allel of latitude and level, of any body of land that rises above 
the water upon the earth's surface. Still again: the current 
of vipo, of which we are speaking, will be always spiral 
around the earth, declining toward the pole of that hemis- 



CHEMISTRY ETHERALE. 51 

phere of it, from which the sun is made, by the eccentricity 
of the earth's orbit to be farthest, in his alternate semi-annual 
transits across our equator. In proof of this assertion, we 
suppose that, in July, a current of our ethere commences to 
follow the sun around the earth, declining from North to 
South, as it would naturally do. And, as the sun is then, the 
earth's orbit being eccentric, and the declination of its peri- 
thelio, as it now is, North — approaching the earth, he will 
set free more and more of reno upon its surface, onward to Jan- 
uary following; and the consequence will be, that our vipo, 
finding a greater and greater supply of its objects, will become 
less and less avidous for it, so that the current in question 
will decrease in force and quantity from North to South. In 
January, the sun being nearer to the earth than he is in July, 
at this day. the current of vipo which now enters upon the 
South, will be greater than was that which entered, as above 
supposed, upon the North pole of the earth ; and, as the reno 
set free by the sun's rays becomes less and less in quantity 
— for bear in mind he is now receding from the earth — so the 
vipo, of which we are now speaking, will be more and more 
avidous for it — and consequently the current itself, which was 
greater in force and quantity than the ojlher one was in the 
first instance, will increase still more as it moves onward, 
and ks present direction will be, as long as the sun continues 
to be, annually, as now, farther from the earth in July than 
he is in January, its prevailing one. And yet there will be 
likely to be a minor current of the same kind of ethere — and 
especially during the winter season here, bearing from the 
North pole toward the Equator of the earth around it west- 
wardly. 

This vipo, which now enters upon the earth's Southern 
pole, draws up the water there considerably high, as is proved 
by the comparative length of a degree that was measured by 
Lacaille, a French Geometresiste, something like a hundred 
years ago, upon the terester meridian, at the latitude of about 
33J° South of our equator, and near the cape of Good Hope. 
In elevating this water, the vipo in question holds upon the 
atmosphere and highlands there ; and such is the elasticity, 
peculiar constitution, and relative position of our atmosphere, 
that the whole of it quite around the earth is concerned, more 
or less, in sustaining this very great traction. And these re- 
marks will apply to the elevation of the water upon the West- 
ern side of the Isthmus of Darien. 

Furthermore, we have to add in this connection, that the 
earth's perihelio is now advanced about 9J° beyond the win- 



52 PHYSICS. 

ter solstice, and is moving in a direct manner, with the veloc- 
ity that would, if it continued, carry it around to its present 
relative position again, in about 21,000 years. Into this move- 
ment elements enter, however, that are not proportional to the 
time during which they arise ; so that it may be greatly af- 
fected, and even made retrograde as that of the perihelio of 
the planet Venus, now actually is. Without entering into 
any nice and laborious calculations, the result of which might 
be more curious than useful just at this moment, we may safe- 
ly say that the perihelio in question passed the vernal equal- 
edieinocteal — night equal to the day — point in the heavens 
about 5,000 years ago, and will pass the autumnal one about 
5000 years hence. When it last passed the vernal equalediei- 
nocteal point, our current of vipo, which bad been then for the 
period of about 10,500 years r entering upon the North r and 
passing off at the South, became changed in direction, so as 
to enter upon the South, and to pass off at the North pole of 
the earth : and the consequence of this change was, that the 
water which had been held for the period,, probably, of 10,500 
years at the earth's Northern pole, was suddenly drawn by 
what is called capillary attraction, for so the act should be 
named, to its Southern one, and there it remains, and will re- 
main, till the earth's perihelio shall have next passed the au- 
tumnal equaledieinoeteai point in the heavens ; and then it 
will be drawn back upon us again* covering us here, perhaps 
five hundred feet deep ; while it will be a third of a mile 
high at the earth*s Northern pole, and but little elevated as it 
now is at our equator. And, be it now borne in mind, that 
the present coldness of our Southern hemisphere, over and 
above what is experienced during the same time here at the 
North, is not the Effect, but the Cause of there being more wa- 
ter at the first, than there is now at the other of these localities ; 
for this water is drawn up by vipo, which always produces, re- 
member, the sensation of cold, while reno does that of heat. 
And thus georyctologistes are helped at once out of all their 
difficulties in regard to cold periods, deposites, drifts, currents, 
boulders, &c, that are, or have been, upon the earth. And, 
to these circumstances, we shall advert again hereafter, under 
the head of georyctology (46.) 

(71.) As the current of vipo under consideration advances 
westwardly, along upon the surface of the earth, it comes to 
a mass of ferreoxite, or of ferresulphurite, or of ferrecarbo- 
nite, and passing over its top, turns under, and so around it, 
permanently, in search of the reno of the carbone, or sul- 
phur, or oxe, as the case may be, there ; and so the mass in 
question becomes a natural magnet, so called, or Indicevipote, 



CHEMISTRY — ETHEREAL. 53 

or Acuvipote, and will always lie, if enabled to turn in the 
same direction which it had when so propertied. Now, oc- 
casion such a current, as you may readily do, around an elon- 
gated piece of ferrecarbonite, and you will have an artificial 
indicevipote. And the reason why it lies in the direction 
nearly North and South, and not in any other one, of its own 
accord, is that the current of vipo around the earth coincides 
with the one which now passes over the top of the little in- 
strument before us. 

Still further, we have to remark in this connection that 
in consequence of the present coldness of the earth's south- 
ern hemisphere, the greatest mean annual heat that is found 
in its surface, or crust, is not exactly where the same would 
otherwise be at the earth's equator, but a few degrees to the 
North of that line. Moreover, we add here that vipo is more 
abundant above than it is at the surface of the earth ; and, 
as it descends, to enter upon the South end of the indicevi- 
pote, and thus to wind round the latter, and to pass off at its 
Northern extremity, this vipo draws that South end up- 
ward — and thus causes the North end of the instrument in 
question to dip more or less, according to its position, beneath 
the horizon. And as this vipo increases in quantity, as well 
as in nearness to our instrument, so the angle of the dip in 
question increases as the latitude Northward does from the 
earth's equator ; and this dip is not, for reasons that may 
be here imagined, so obvious in our Southern, as it is in our 
Northern hemisphere. 

The South end of the indicevipote, enabled to choose its 
own position any where betwixt the earth's equator and the 
latitude, say of about 25° South of it, is found to be from 
about eight o'clock in the morning to half-past two in the af- 
ternoon, daily drawn several degrees to the West of its natural 
position, and then it returns thither again ; and if this instru- 
ment is located South of the earth's equator, amid similar 
circumstances, its North end will be so drawn, and then per- 
mitted to return ; and for this occurrence, a sufficient reason 
may be, as we think, assigned. Our current of vipo must be 
daily much weakened by the reno which is set free by the 
sun's action, and which is thus enabled to take that vipo up 
and combine with it, and thus to render it neutral ; and there- 
fore, as this vipo attempts to enter upon the South end of out 
indicevipote, while North of the earth's equator it is solicited 
by the abundant reno approaching from the eastward, during 
the fore part of each day, and so it draws that end at this 
time in the same direction. 

5* 



54 



PHYSICS. 



Again : at the earth's southern pole, the current of vipo un- 
der consideration, is, at this day, strong ; and thus it finds the 
South end of the indicevipote, placed South of the earth's 
equator, and not more, than suppose, 25° from it. This vipo 
enters upon the South end of our instrument without affecting 
its position, and thus passes spirally around it, to its northern 
extremity, and, in thus leaving it, the vipo, of which we are 
speaking, draws that northern extremity more or less east- 
wardly in pursuit of the reno there set free by the sun, during 
the fore, part of the day. 

Many attempts have been made to explain the cause of the 
ordinary and secular declination of the indicevipote from the 
true meridian of any given place upon the earth ; but none 
of them stand the test of criticism. The instrument before 
us may be found to be, at this day suppose, exactly coinci- 
dent with the meridian of some given locality upon the sur- 
face of the earth. It commences to decline either eastward 
or westward, of that meridian, and continues to do so gradu- 
ally and constantly, more and more for a long course of 
years, differing in number according to the place where it 
may happen to be observed, and then it returns in a similar 
maner to the same meridian again ; and now a correspond- 
ing movement of it takes place in the opposite direction, and 
so onward. And observations have not been yet sufficiently 
extended for ascertaining whether this movement is exactly 
periodic or not so in any place. The cause of this deport- 
ment of the indicevipote is doubtless at, and below the sur- 
face of the earth, as we shall endeavor to show more fully 
hereafter, under the head of georyctology. 

In dismissing, for the moment, this part of our subject, we 
have to observe that, in the present state of our knowledge, 
we are obliged to consider the circumstance that a current of 
vipo passing spirally around a piece of ferre, will hold there 
on, and extend its own energies to other ferre, to cobole and 
nicale, and thus tend to draw together the two portions of 
metal so concerned, as an essential ingredient in the absolute 
character of those substances, a point to which we may ad- 
vert again hereafter. 

(72.) The Aurorapolares (70.) consist of vipo, tending in 
pursuit of reno toward a warmer region, and the warmest one 
to which it can go, without having to pass on its way through 
a colder one than where it is, must be found at the parallel of 
latitude upon the earth's surface where the sun is, or has 
been during the same day, vertical. And the disturbance 
caused by this free vipo combining with reno, in the calore of 



CHEMISTRY ETHEREAL. 55 

space, will not be so likely to affect eyes that are turned 
toward the parallel here specified, as it will be so, while 
they are turned in the opposite direction, and thus meeting 
the approach of that disturbance ; and hence the reason why 
these aurorapolares are seldom, and never, except in very high 
latitudes, where the vipo of which we are speaking must be 
abundant, seen in the direction toward that parallel. The 
neutralization of this vipo, with the reno it finds on its way, 
causes the coldness that usually attends, or immediately fol- 
lows the phenomeno in question. 

Auroraaustrales have been, though not very often, seen. — 
And the reason why they occur so seldom at this day is, that 
the current of vipo which passes around the earth, commences 
now at its southern pole, and thus moves northwardly without 
much interruption ; while at its northern pole, a reaction of 
of the same thing occurs, and thus causes a disturbance in 
the calore of space there. When this current enters upon 
the earth's northern pole, as it will commence to do about 
5000 years hence, then the auroraaustrales are greater and 
more frequent than are the auroraboreales, while at present 
the latter are the more frequent of the two. 

These aurorapolares are found to affect, temporarily, the de- 
portment of the indicevipote ; and well they may do so, for 
they interfere very obviously with the current of vipo which 
passes around this instrument. And, dismissing for the pre- 
sent this part of our subject, let us add that about five 
thousand years hence, when the current of vipo which pass- 
es spirally around the earth, declining at this day from South 
to North, shall have become changed, as it will then be in 
direction, so as to decline from North to South. The current 
around the indicevipote will have to be changed in the same 
manner ; and for some hundreds of years, while this change 
will be taking place, our little instrument will be apt to be 
somewhat unfaithful. 

(73.) Every substance, as well as space itself, has, we have 
said, (66) its own specie or kind of calore. And when an 
object is affected by what is usually called lightning from the 
heavens, its calore becomes, for the moment, more or less de- 
composed — though its parts, if torn assunder, or the whole 
object, if left entire, immediately recover the ethere which be- 
longs to their kind of materia again ; but not always that which 
may have belonged to them as biones, or as parts of a bione, 
for biones are often thereby killed. The vipo in this case, 
holding upon the object to which it belongs, and thus taking 
a portion, perhaps, of that object along with itself, meets the 
reno approaching from the clouds, and is consequently neu- 



56 PHYSICS. 

tralized as calore again, causing thereby a disturbance in the 
calore of space, which affects eyes that are turned toward it 
as a ball of light ; and, meantime, the reno of the calore so 
descomposed, holding upon the same object, and thus taking 
portions of it along with itself, passes in the opposite direc- 
tion to the earth, in order to become there neutralized in turn 
with another quantity of vipo. And when several objects are 
struck, as the common expression is, by one and the same 
lightning, an occurrence that is occasionally noticed, it is 
generally true that the last one of them is affected by the re- 
no that comes, not from the clouds, but from the object that 
was struck immediately before it — and so backward to the 
first one there ; though, sometimes, a quantity of reno will 
become divided, and thus a part of it goes to one object, 
while the rest of it attacks another one near it ; but no light- 
ning ever continues through or from one object to another.—- 
And the reno that comes from the clouds in any case of ordi- 
nary lightning, is evolved from aqueous vapor, which is there- 
by suddenly condensed to a shower of rain. And from what 
has been here advanced, we may readily perceive why the 
parts of an object that is torn by lightning should be found, 
as they generally are, scattered about in all directions from 
the position they occupied when together. The bones of an- 
imals killed by lightning are often much broken, while their 
flesh and skin are seldom, and probably never torn by it, 
and thus we perceive that the constituents of the spe- 
cific calore of these last mentioned parts separate from 
each other, and leave them very readily. And, forget not 
here, that it is the hold which the reno has upon our atmos- 
phere, and the vipo upon the earth, or rather upon the reno 
of the earth that enables those two bipetentes to pull an ob- 
ject to pieces so violently and suddenly in case of lightning. 
The reno of lightning sometimes neutralizes, so suddenly, the 
vipo which passes around the indicevipote, as to annihilate 
the current entirely. And thus a faithful indicevipote, on 
board a vessel at sea, for example, as well as elsewhere, may 
be, and occasionally is, converted quite instantaneously into 
an ordinary piece of steel. And here let us add the remark, 
that vipo will continue to enter upon the South end of the in- 
strument here spoken of, as long as there is any of its like 
already there ; but suddenly remove the whole from thence, 
and the vipo of space finds nothing there to follow ; and it 
never moves any where till attracted by something to do so. 
Lightning rods, as they are usually called, are apt to be so 
arranged, by persons ignorant of the character of ethere, as 
to be worse than useless — and even the cause of an explosion 



CHEMISTRY ETHEREAL. 57 

which might not have occurred in their total absence. They 
may be so put up, however, and that, too, without much ex- 
traordinary expense, as to secure a building, or any thing else, 
from such effects. 

Shooting stars, so called, and such like meteors in the 
heavens, (respecting the origin of which we shall omit all in- 
quiries till we shall have come to the subject of planetology) 
are drawn very obviously, by their vipo, which seeks its op- 
posite bipetente in the regions above us ; and the union of 
these two etheres causes the light which appears in such 
cases. And similar remarks will be applicable, doubtless, to 
all luminous appearances in the atmosphere above and around 
us, included that which is seen, occasionally, upon the masts 
of a vessel at sea, and even in port, and upon the bayonets 
and spears, when held erect, and, in the open air, of soldiers ; 
and which is seen in the evening sky, also, sometimes with 
the aspect of lightning without any sound ; vipo is evidently 
the first mover, seeking reno in all these cases. And to them 
we shall pay further attention hereafter, under the head of 
planetology. 

(74.) In the case of double refraction, a phenomeno res- 
pecting which the reader is presumed to have some ideas, the 
particles of calore there concerned, become at the surface of 
the refracting mediue divided — so that a portion of each of 
them vibrates in one, while the remaining part of it does so in 
another direction. And the same is evidently true in what is 
called by the barbarous, and unmeaning, and inappropriate 
term, the polarization of light, a phenomeno that occurs only 
in that which is reflected — a proof that it is calore, and not 
free ethere, either vipo or reno in the first instance, while the 
effect indicates that this calore is decomposed, as it is un- 
doubtedly in double refraction — subjects of which we shall 
speak more fully hereafter, under the head of Lucirefraction, 
a sub-department to be made of the more general one of me- 
chanics (46.) 

In the case of Lucireflection, we perceive the image of the 
same object from whence originated the light that comes to 
our eyes. And in Specterfacture, which is commonly, but 
very improperly termed photography, the particles of calore 
that form the image are fixed there, so that they communicate 
to any other particles of it that come in contact with them the 
same character or modification which they received either di- 
rectly or indirectly from the original object — a subject that 
will be further considered hereafter under the head of me- 
chanics (46.) 

(75.) In the explosion or bursting of a gun or steam boiler, 



58 jpiiYslcg. 

the vipo generally, though it may be the reno, of the metal, 
holding upon the same, pulls it to pieces in pursuit of its op- 
posite bipetente, around it. And hence no explosion can take 
place in an unlimited vacue. This opposite must have some- 
thing material to hold upon, as otherwise it could not enable 
the first to pull at all, in any case, though such first one might 
pass off quietly as vipo usually does in the aurorapolares, and 
as reno does in the train of comets. 

The explosion of any vessel by steam may be occasioned 
partly by what is strictly dyname mechanic — or, in other 
words, the elasticity of the steam, will have, very naturally, 
some, though comparatively speaking, very little, effect in the 
case. The occurrence under consideration is chiefly the ef- 
fect of dyname chimic. And here let it be observed, that ex- 
plosions of steam boilers take place generally, when at all, 
in steamboats, just as the latter are starting, or being put in 
motion, after having been stopped a few minutes. The ves- 
sel, or rather the apparatue within it, has stood still long 
enough to heat the air very much around it. Water is now 
let into the boiler, a thing that has not taken place in conse- 
quence of the quiescence of the engine or apparatue designed 
to throw it there, for some minutes previously, and a large 
quantity of steam is thus suddenly generated ; and the boiler 
in question becomes consequently, highly charged with ethere, 
which appears to be vipo, in the free state, and which cannot 
become readily neutralized by reno from a neighboring por- 
tion of the atmosphere, as the latter is now much heated in 
the manner just mentioned, and thus rendered dry, and made 
to surrender vipo, perhaps, as well as to seize upon reno 
around it — and yet to be thus neutralized, the vipo upon our 
boiler struggles greatly at least, if it does not succeed in be- 
ing so. Now see it holding a portion of this boiler with one 
hand, while it reaches the other one to that of its opposite 
bipetente, which is holding, at the same time, with the other 
hand, upon the atmosphere, perhaps twenty or a hundred rods 
off. And, thus you will perceive that a portion of our atmos- 
phere, and no one knows to what extent, will be pulled upon, 
at least, if not actually moved towards the boiler, while por- 
tions of that boiler will be pulled in the same manner, toward 
the atmosphere, and, if the boiler in question is not sufficient- 
ly strong to resist this traction, it will be drawn assunder ; — 
or, in other words, we shall have an explosion here. And, 
from what we have been now saying, we perceive that a me- 
talic connection should be kept up betwixt the boiler of a 
steamboat and the water upon which it may be at the same 
time in actual use. If the bojler of the engine is station? 



CHEMISTRY — ETHEREALE. 59 

ary, the rod of connection here intimated should extend 
deeply into the earth, or, at any rate, to where moisture is 
found. And, if the boiler of your locomotive engine ex- 
plodes, whether at rest or in motion, examine carefully, and 
you will be likely to find something, I think, such as indu- 
rated or inspissated oil upon the machinery around it ; or dry 
earth upon the rails of the track where it was then standing or 
moving, or dry wood or dry earth beneath those rails, which, 
effected, just at the time of the occurrence here supposed, an 
insulation of that boiler. 

The rationality of the explosion of Higecarboneitanbi, or 
light carburetted hydrogen gas, is obviously thus : Heat, a term 
that is usually applied to what I mean by the mutual action of 
the two etheres, vipo and reno, as in case of any flame, dis- 
turbs the connection that exists between the hige, which is 
the ingredient riporectue and the carbone which is the in- 
gredient renorectue in this compound ; and the first be- 
comes thus separated from the other, and is immediately 
drawn by its vipo to the oxe of,the atmosphere around it, while 
that oxe is drawn by its reno to the same hige ; and thus we 
have water— but the oxe, in order to form this connection, 
must surrender two equivalents of vipo, one of which the car- 
bone in question seizes, and thus becomes perfect carbone 
vapor, and the same, taking oxe from the atmosphere around 
it, becomes carboneoxatubi. Here, then, we have an equiva- 
lent of vipo to be neutralized as best it can be ; and in be- 
coming so, it behaves like the lightning of heaven. And thus 
we perceive the cause of the light, of the sound, and of the 
dragging of heavy bodies to a distance, which we actual- 
ly witness in cases of this kind. The wire gauze which 
is now usually put around lamps in coal mines, for the pur- 
pose of preventing explosions there, in this higecarbonei- 
tanbi, conducts and dissipates away a portion of the two 
etheres which constitute the flame of such lamps, so that 
neither of them can become sufficiently concentrated to cause 
or commence ihe disturbance of which we are speaking. 

Common gunpowder is a peculiar article. It consists of Cal- 
eaniteruqui, or the nitrate ofpotash,75; of carbone in the state of 
soft pulverized charcoal, 14, and of sulphur, about 12 weights, 
mixed up together with water, some of which remains,very pro- 
bably, an ingredient in the resulting compound , after the latter is 
granulated to powder, and thoroughly dried. When ignited, 
this compound becomes very suddenly metamorphosed to sev- 
eral new substances, such as carboneoxite, niter, Calesuiphu- 
rita, or the protosulphurete of potasium, and, probably a little 



60 PHYSICS. 

aqeous vapor ; and even, occasionally, perhaps, a small por- 
tion of Caleasulphuruter, or the sulphate of potash ; all of 
which occupy, to say the least of them in this respect, about 
two hundred and fifty times as much space as did the powder 
from whence they so arose ; and, probably, they are made to 
expand for the moment to a much greater extent than what is 
here mentioned ; and, in becoming what they now are from 
the powder in question, these substances appropriated to 
theirselves, as best they could obtain, a large quantity of both 
kinds of ethere, and much more of reno, 1 think, judging 
from the result, than they did of vipo ; and hence every ob- 
ject in their immediate vicinity at the time of this transfor- 
mation of them being robbed, as well as the space itself 
there, of a portion of its reno, is drawn more or less, or at- 
tempted to be so, by its vipo, outwardly from them, in pur- 
suit of a new supply of reno for what they have so lost ; 
and such is, unquestionably, the rationeality of the explosion 
that takes place in ignited gunpowder. If this ignition is 
quick, the contribution to it, of ethere, from what is around 
it, must be sudden ; and thus the metal of a canon, for exam- 
ple, in which it occurs, may become so imperfect and weak- 
ened as to be drawn in pieces by one of the two constituents 
of its own calore, in pursuit of a substitute for the other of 
them, which may have been just extorted from it, as was 
doubtless the case in the catastrophe which happened some 
time since on board of our national vessel, the Princeton, 
There the ball seems not to have been driven up to the pow- 
der in the gun, so that the whole of that powder became 
ignited at once ; and the large and sudden draught of ethere, 
which appears to have been mostly reno, thus made upon 
that metal, was not properly supplied, so that the vipo of 
that same metal was obliged to drag it in parcels to where, 
finding the reno for that of which it had been thus deprived, 
it became perfect again. A terrible explosion occurred in a 
building during the recent great fire, July, 1845, in New- 
York ; and those who ought to know what was in that build- 
ing, contend that the effect in question was that of ignited 
Caleaniteruqui, or saltpetre; and a similar occurrence was 
mentioned in the papers of the day as having taken place, 
some years ago, in a vessel at Boston. But caleaniteruqui 
does hot explode when heated in ordinary cases. Heat 
being applied to it, the oxe takes vipo and leaves it, while 
the niter takes reno and expands to its natural state, and so 
disappears, leaving the calea behind. It was said, however, 
that in the present case a quantity of shell-lac fell upon the 



CHEMISTRY — ETHEREAL. 61 

ignited caleaniteruqui. And here we leave the subject with 
the simple remark that it needs further examination. 

(76.) When any number of substances are brought in con- 
tact, one with the rest of them, and even near to each other, 
there is apt to be a disturbance, more or less, in their respec- 
tive calores ; and hence the rationeality that one from ano- 
ther different kinds of biones do live in some cases well, and 
in others not so, together. And hence, too, we can form a 
general idea, perhaps, how it is that a cat or a snake charms 
a bird, and thus catches it ; and how one is able to control 
another individual among mankind. It has been long known 
that in many cases one may be made to act in some respects 
according to the will of another person ; and even the ethere 
of the common magnet can be made to affect the calore of a 
person ; and hence the phrase, Animal Magnetism — a bad 
one, however — while that of Mesmerism is a still worse one 
for this phenomeno, because Mesmer, the German from 
whose name the word is derived, and who operated in this 
way something like seventy years ago in France and else- 
where, was not the original discoverer of the effects thus 
produced, as they were probably known among the ancient 
Egyptians. And again, he knew nothing about the ratione- 
ality of them, and a convenient term for them is yet a de- 
siderate. I call it Caloriaffection. Upon this point, also, 
we shall be likely to have something further than this is to 
say, when we shall have come to the subject of bionologia. 

(77.) In the case of ordinary combustion, the Be which, 
as we have heretofore said, implies any combustible sub- 
stance, surrenders reno, while the S, which represents, we 
have also observed, any supporter of combustion, such as 
oxe, clore, brome, iode, etc., relinquishes vipo, and thus the 
Be and the S being drawn, the first by its vipo, and the 
other by its reno, come together as one homogene mass, 
which we call a Besite, in case it becomes the ingredient 
viporectue in other compounds, and a Besate, if it is the ingre- 
dient renorectue there. And, of course, besites include all 
oxites or oxides, and many substances that are not so, while 
besates embrace all acids and many substances that have 
nothing of the acid taste about tfiem. 

(b.) Some of this reno thus surrendered, as above sug- 
gested, passes off, and becomes heat in common parlance, to 
surrounding substances, while a part, more or less, according 
to circumstances, of it combines with a corresponding por- 
tion of its opposite bipetente, and is thus carried off in qui- 
escent calore ; and, while in the act of so combining, they 
6 



62 PHYSICS. 

occasion, in the calore of space, a disturbance which affects 
the vision of animales or is light to them. This combination 
is obviously small in the case of the combustion of hige in 
oxe, for the light is but little, while the heat is very great 
there. And in a given case of combustion, the more light 
the less heat there is ; or, in other words, if in such an in- 
stance any artifice can diminish the combination here speci 
fied, the more heat there will be ; or, if the heat can be di- 
minished in quantity, and I suspect it cannot be so in the 
manner here intended, the more will be the light there. 

(78.) Minico substances are generally vipofers : that is, 
they are apt to have a small atmosphere, so to speak, of vipo 
around them, or, in other words, they are somewhat viposede, 
which term imports, affording a seat or resting place for vipo. 
Put your hand upon one of them, and its vipo will take 
reno from you more rapidly than feathers or woolen cloth 
will do in the same apartment, or in the same portion of our 
atmosphere where all these articles may be supposed to be 
equally warm, so that the minico will feel, and be, in fact, 
the colder one of the things in question. This vipo carrries 
off your reno in calore, leaving that minico to contract a lit- 
tle in the first instance, and thus to become w T armer, not only 
to your hand, but really so to mercure. 

(b.) Put water or alcohol, or any other liquid that evapo- 
rates rapidly, upon the inflamed part of an animale, and the 
reno of such part, leaving its inflammation to subside more or 
less, will carry off the liquid so applied as vapor. 

(79.) When you warm yourself by any means you receive 
reno into your system. But if a partial decomposition of the 
specific calore of any portion of your body has taken place, 
or commenced to do so, as in case of burning or freezing it, 
without going so far as to occasion therein an actual mortifi- 
cation, then, in the first of these cases, hold the part that is 
burnt toward or near a fire, and reno from the same will 
drive out the redundant and morbid reno from such part, and 
take its place, and thus restore the specific calore of that part 
to what it was before the accident of which we are speaking 
occurred. And, in the second case above mentioned, apply 
cold water, snow, or ice, to the part so affected, and the reno 
of the article thus applied,' leaving its own existing connec- 
tion, will pass to the frozen part in question and restore it to 
its healthful condition. 

It is true that the articles here mentioned are all highly 
vipoferente ; and for that very reason it is that they will pre- 
vent the vipo of the affected part from deserting it too sud- 



CHEMISTRY— ETHEREAL. 63 

denly, while their own reno, leaving them still more vipo* 
ferente than they were when so applied, chooses, no matter, 
just now, for what particular reason, to form a new connec- 
tion ; a very common occurrence in nature, whose operations 
are always wholly accidental. 

(80.) Lay a small sewing-needle carefully upon still water, 
and the reno of each, in attempting to pass to the other, will 
become, along with a portion of air, a stratue betwixt them ; 
and the current of vipo which is constantly following the 
sun's beams around upon the surface of the earth, declining 
at this day to the north, will soon direct the point of that 
needle to the northward, laying the latter coincidently with any 
properly balanced indicevipote there, upon either side of the 
earth's equator ; and thus, if left undisturbed, your needle 
will long remain. You will meet with more than one diffi- 
culty jn attempting to bring about this effect by suspending 
this needle at its middle or horizontally in our atmosphere. 
First, some force will be required for twisting the string by 
which your needle is suspended, even should it have a ten- 
dency thus to move ; and, second, the action of vipo upon the 
reno of the water is greater than it is upon that of dry land 
or in the atmosphere. 

(b.) No solid substance will become wholly submerged 
when left to itself, in the same, while liquid. And ice does 
not sink to its proper depth, J, in water ; and the reason is, 
that the reno of each, in attempting to pass to the other, be- 
comes a stratue at the bottom and sides of that solid, and 
buoys it up. 

(c.) The vipo of the water in the ocean raises that upward 
to meet the reno which is drawing a quantity of aquous vapor 
downward to the same water ; and thus we have what is 
usually called a water spout at sea. 

(d.) Two bodies susceptible of being wetted with water, 
and placed upon it, will move toward each other ; and that, 
too, because the reno of the water draws the same each way 
toward those bodies in pursuit of their vipo, and thus occa- 
sions a depression between them. If they are not suscepti- 
ble of being so wetted, they will still bear toward each other ; 
and that, too, because the reno of the water will draw the 
same away from them, in pursuit likewise of vipo, and thus a 
depression will also be there ; but if one of the bodies here 
mentioned is wetted, and the other not so, in this case they 
will not, when placed upon water, tend either from or toward 
each other. Ordinary gravitation will have, undoubtedly, 
some effect in this case, but no very perceptible one* 



64 



PHYSICS. 



(81.) Atmospheric air becomes vipous to aquous vapor, 
which, to the same air, is renous, and thus they will mix to- 
gether ; or rather, our atmosphere dissolves water, or takes it 
up as vapor ; and, on the other hand, water becomes vipous 
to oxe, and dissolves it ; and furthermore, water dissolves 
even a compound of about two of niter to one of oxe, which 
is usually considered as atmospheric air, though it is not, pro- 
perly so ; but water becomes vipous to oil, which is vipous also 
to the same water ; and so they will not become comingled 
together. And atmospheric air likewise becomes vipous to 
oil, which is vipous to that same air ; and, of course, these 
two substances will not intermingle the one with the other of 
them, so that the oil is perfectly neutral in this case ; and 
hence, in allusion to that circumstance, we say of a thing 
that manifests no asperities, it is smooth as oil. And the 
consequence of all this is, that the winds of heaven will 
raise up broken and ragged billows upon the bare surfece of 
the ocean ; though if oil intervenes betwixt the wind and the 
water in this case, the waves may be raised considerably 
high, but they will not be ragged or much broken, for then 
the winds can take no hold of the water in question. 

(82.) In the whirlwind or hurricane, so called, a well 
known occurrence, the reno of the air that may be so en- 
gaged drags it along in pursuit of the vipo of the earth, or, 
perhaps, of a redundant quantity of it, in another region of 
our atmosphere ; and thus, in consequence of the elasticity 
of the air above and around us, a gyratory motion is occa- 
sioned in it, so that we have here the conjoint operation of 
dyname chimic and dyname mechanic ; a subject respecting 
which we shall have something further than what is here 
said to offer, under the head of Aerologia, which will be a 
sub-department of georyctology, (46.) 

(83.) Put one end of a piece of glass into water while the 
opposite extremity remains out of the same, and some of this 
water will be drawn by its reno a short distance upward, to 
meet the vipo of that glass, which being etheriheder gene- 
rally, and viposede in this case, does not permit its vipo to 
come down so readily to meet the reno of the water just men- 
tioned. And remarks similar to these are applicable to seal- 
ing wax, which is Renosede, or affords a seat for reno, in the 
same predicament where the glass has been here supposed to 
be, provided we say the reno instead of the vipo of the wax, 
and the vipo instead of the reno of the water. 

(b.) Etheriodo substances never become what is called 
hygrometic ; and bear in mind here that ashes, moss, &c, 



CHEMISTRY — ETHEREAL. 65 

are etheriheder ; and the water with which they become 
moistened amid the proper circumstances, without being ac- 
tually immersed in it, a fact well known, is drawn up into 
them by its regente ethere, which is generally, and perhaps 
always in such cases, its vipo ; and the same, holding upon 
that water, seeks its opposite bipetente in the substance here 
indicated ; and thus we explain that long observed and hither- 
to wonderful phenomeno, Capilary Attraction. 

It is well known that almost any two, one from another 
different gases, will become readily blended together when 
brought into juxtaposition, the one with the other of them, 
although they may not be of one and the same specific gra- 
vity. Portions of the heavier one will ascend, while some 
of the lighter one will descend more or less in such a case ; 
and the rationeality of the whole occurrence is the same as 
is that of capilary attraction, of which we have just been 
speaking. They are drawn, each by its regente ethere, into 
the other ; and thus niter dissolves oxe, and the compound 
so formed dissolves carboneoxatubi ; and this last mentioned 
compound dissolves aqueous vapor ; and so we have atmos- 
pheric air; a homogene mass, or chimical compound analo- 
gous to salt water, or water holding common salt in solution. 
And here let it be added that the circumstances just men- 
tioned constitute an important ingredient in the rationeality 
of storms in our atmosphere, and also in that of bionic respi- 
ration ; to the first of which subjects I shall refer again here- 
after, under the head of aerologia ; and the other one under 
that of Biology, which will be a sub-department of bionolo- 
gia, (46.) 

(84.) Immerse any of the common (53) metals properly so 
called, and of course I do not mean here cale, nor any of that 
oxitible character, in pure water, at a low temperature, and 
say at 30, C, and it will become oxited but little for a conside- 
rable time ; and yet the vapor of water coming in contact 
with some metals, ferre or zince for example, will cause them 
to become very readily oxited ; and the manner of their being 
there so is undoubtedly thus : The hige of the vapor takes 
reno from ferre, suppose, and is thus enabled to rise to the 
atmosphere above and around it, leaving its oxe in the state 
renorectue or nascent, as chimistes say, to combine with 
that ferre which is already viporectue and prepared to receive 
it. With the zince the case is a little variant from this ; for 
that metal is one of the few hylaples which become viporec- 
tue, not by surrendering reno, but by acquiring vipo in addi- 
tion to its natural share of that kind of ethere, as we shall 
6* 



66 



PHYSICS. 



prove more fully hereafter. The vapor in question takes 
reno from what is around it, and thus enables vipo to lodge 
upon the zince, and so to render it viporectue ; and, now, in 
search of this vipo, the reno of the oxe of the vapor draws 
that oxe to the zince in question, leaving the hige of that por- 
tion of vapor to obtain reno as best it can do, from the vapor 
itself. And let not our object be mistaken herein It is to 
find the original cause of effects, and to trace the steps of 
that, cause to the consummation of such effects. 

(b.) When ferre is long heated it is said to be Annealed ; 
and thus it becomes softer and more flexible than it would 
otherwise be, though its tenacity is said by some, at least, in 
my hearing, to become in that way somewhat diminished ; and 
in this condition its natural share of reno is probably a little 
increased. 

(85.) Put caleaaqua or the hydrate of calea upon red hot 
ferre, and the oxe of the calea as well as that of the aqua of 
that caleaaqua, will go to the ferre in question ; but this ferre, 
in order to receive that oxe, must become viporectue by giv- 
ing up a portion of its reno, which the hige of the aqua above 
mentioned seizes ; and thus it has its natural share of that 
kind of ethere, or what it surrendered in becoming such 
aqua ; but the vipo which it gave up when, as a constituent 
of that aqua, it became united with the calea under conside- 
ration, it does not obtain ; and therefore, being renorectue, it 
is obliged to combine immediately with the nascent, or vipo- 
rectue cale, which results from the decomposition before us ; 
and thus we have here Ferreoxite and Calehigite, which lat- 
ter is called in the books by the barbarous term of amoniuret 
of potasium ; but this compound, being left in the atmosphere, 
its cale combines with oxe, which, yielding vipo to the hige, 
thus enables it to retire in its gaseous form ; or, if the sub- 
stance in question is placed in a vacue, its hige will obtain 
vipo from the calore of space, and thus retire in its perfect 
state, while the reno of that same calore, thus decomposed, 
will go to the cale and render it also perfect. 

And here is an occurrence that deserves a little more of our 
attention than we have thus far given to it. Had the cale 
received the reno which the ferre before us surrendered in 
this case, it would have become perfect, leaving the hige 
under consideration to become so by simply taking a portion, 
modified a little at most, perhaps, of the calore of space ; for 
bear in mind, that for the purpose of becoming proper hige it 
needed both vipo and reno ; but the cale, instead of taking 
the reno of which we have spoken, chooses rather to combine 



CHEMISTRY ETHEREAL. 67 

directly with the hige, which is thereby obliged to take that 
reno, and thus to be in a state renorectue to unite with the 
cale in question. 

(b.) Apply heat to Calceacarboneubi, limestone, or to Cal- 
ceaaqua, or the hydrate of lime, and the aqua of the one, or the 
Carboneoxatubi of the other substance here mentioned, being 
not an Aquabesate, but simply a besate, will take a quantity of 
vipo from the calore of space, or from the fire so applied to it, 
while the reno which had been connected with that vipo will 
go to the calcea nascent of the compound under consideration ; 
and so this calcea and the aqua in the one, or the calcea and 
the carboneoxatubi in the other case, of which we have spo- 
ken, will become both perfect, and separate the one from the 
other of them. 

Put Ferreasilice, that is, the protoxide of iron united with 
silice, a very commoK ore of iron and calceacarboneubi, or 
say a quantity of oyster shells into a furnace, and apply the 
requisite heat to them ; and, in the first place, the carbone- 
oxatubi will be driven, as already mentioned, from the calcea 
of the calceacarboneubi in question. And now this calcea 
will combine with the silice of the ferreasilice, and thus give 
rise to Calceasilice, a kind of glass which is called slag. 
Meantime the oxe of the remaining ferrea combines with 
some vapor of carbone, which of course must be present ; 
and thus we have Carbonea, which soon takes another equiva- 
lent of oxe, and so becomes carboneoxatubi, the vipo of this 
oxe combining with the reno from the carbonea as calore. 
And the half equivalent of reno surrrendered by the calcea, 
when it combined with the silice as just mentioned, and also 
the whole one surrendered by the vapor of carbone when it 
became carbonea, go at the same time to the ferre, which 
thus becomes perfect : for remember that the ferre requires, 
in this case, an equivalent and a half of reno. It appears 
that the vipo from three equivalents of oxe will neutralize the 
reno from two of ferre ; and so these two hylaples will come 
together as Ferreoxituterbi, or y, or the sesquioxide of iron. 
And further, it seems that for one of these equivalents of oxe, 
two of aqua, or of argileoy, of silice, of carboneoxatubi, or 
even of the same, ferreoxituy may be substituted ; and so we 
shall have in the first of these cases Ferreaaqua, or the hy- 
drate of iron ; in the second, Ferreaargileoy, or the argilla- 
ceous oxide of iron ; in the third, Ferreasilice or the silicious 
oxide of iron; in the fourth, Ferreacarboneubi ; and in the 
fifth, Ferreaferreuy, or the black oxide of iron. And from this 
we learn that duple compounds, in coming together into an 



08 PHYSICS. 

homogene mass, surrender each only half an equivalent of 
their disposable ethere. And instances may be given when 
quadruple ones surrender, in such a case, only one fourth of 
an equivalent of the same. And hence we perceive why it 
is that multiple compounds are held not very tenaceously 
together. 

(c.) The most natural oxite of mangane also, is a y, terbi 
or sesqui ; but this metal can be made, though not very easi- 
ly, to remain, for a short time at least, and perhaps indefi- 
nitely, in a state of manganea or protoxide of mangane. The 
most, if not all the lowest or first oxites of metals, have a 
tendency to combine with aqua and silice, as well as with 
ordinary acids ; and all of them, except Ferrea, have been, I 
believe, insulated. 

(86.) Judging from the datues before me, I conclude that 
carbone does not combine with ferre in any definite manner. 
Analyse finds from one to three weights of the former in a 
hundred of what is denominated steel, and about ninety-five 
weights of it in what is called plumbago or graphite ; and 
the opinion seems to prevail among chimistes that this gra- 
phite exists as such in what is termed cast iron. As to my- 
self, however, I suspect that the graphite in question becomes 
so in consequence of this very analyse that finds it there. 
Be this, however, as it may be for the moment, we find that 
a given quantity of ferre will combine with either a very large 
or very small portion of carbone ; but we do not find that 
these two substances come together in any thing like the pro- 
portion of one to one, either in equivalent, weight or measure. 
And let us attempt at least, to assign something like a reason 
for this. First, then, two weights of carbone in a state of 
vapor must surrender a large quantity of vipo to become as 
dense as ferre is ; and, on the contrary, the ferre, in order to 
receive that caroone, must abandon some reno ; and this 
reno, though it may be small for any one weight, will be con- 
siderable for ninety- eight of them, and enough to neutralize 
the vipo from the carbone in question ; and thus the two sub- 
stances before us, leaving the etheres which they have so 
relinquished to become calore, can unite together as ferrecar- 
bonite or steel. Again, the vipo which ninety-five weights 
of diamond will have to surrender in order to become enabled 
to combine with ferre, may be only about sufficient to neutral- 
ize the reno which five weights of ferre must abandon in order 
to receive that carbone ; whereas, were the proportion of car- 
bone and ferre any thing like one to one, in either of these 
cases, the union in question might not be possible. 



CHEMISTRY ETHEREAL. 69 

(b.) Bring hige carbonitanbi in contact with red hot ferre, 
and the latter will yield reno to the hige of that compound, 
so that while the hige in question escapes in its gaseous 
state, the carbone with which it was connected being reno- 
rectue, unites with the ferre, which, in surrendering the reno, 
as above suggested, becomes viporectue, and enabled to re- 
ceive it, and consequently we have here a portion of ferre- 
carbonite, or steel. 

Put ferre into a fire of any carboneous substance, and some 
of the carbone there, not being able to obtain oxe, combines 
directly with the same ferre, which is thus obliged to surren- 
der some reno that leaves it reluctantly, and so draws out 
blisters upon it ; and thus we have blistered steel. 

(c.) Sometimes ferrecarbonite comes from ferreacarbone- 
ubi, or carbonate of iron, when put into a furnace ; and let 
us see how this can readily take place : the carbone of the 
carboneoxatubi in the compound before us, in order to become 
dense enough to combine directly with the ferre of the same 
compound, must relinquish a quantity of vipo ; and sufficient, 
doubtless, to enable its own oxe, as well as that of the ferre 
in question, to escape ; and thus the same ferre and carbone, 
or a portion of the latter, may come together as ferre car- 
bonite. 

(87.) The hardening of any metal consists, undoubtedly, 
in a modification of its specific calore ; and such modification 
consists, it is equally obvious, in extracting from this calore 
a portion of its reno. And this is proved as follows : water, 
in becoming steam, must have its specific calore much in- 
creased in quantity ; and vipo is found to attend this steam, 
though when it condenses it surrenders reno, a proof that it 
takes proportionably more of reno than it does of vipo. And 
this reno it seizes wherever it can do so from a heated 
metal, ferre for example, and thus renders the same more 
dense and hard than previously it was, and approaching that 
imperfect condition which characterizes the constituents of 
homogene compounds. 

(88.) Put a drop of water upon ferre for example, and 
whether the same will or will not prove true in regard to 
any one of the metals that is very hot, I shall not undertake 
at this moment to say ; and the reno of each will attempt to 
pass to the other, in preference to going to the atmosphere, 
which, bear in mind, is not etheriodo, but somewhat etheri- 
heder, around them ; and thus the same drop will remain 
running about upon that metal for a few seconds before it be- 
comes metamorphosed to vapor. And the explanation of this 



70 



PHYSICS. 



phenomeno is thus : there is a small atmosphere, so to speak, 
here of reno upon the surface of our metal. A part of it 
goes to the drop of water in this case, but not enough of it to 
change that water immediately to vapor. And it is generally 
t.ue, as we shall be apt to find, that the transformation of a 
sr o "1 o the liquid, or of a liquid to the gaseous state, is not 
gradual but sudden. The specific calore of the article thus 
engaged has to become, in such a case, considerably modi- 
fied, and the reno for this modification is not apt to be 
received at all until a sufficient quantity of it is obtainable for 
the purpose. 

v (89.) The action of aquaniteruqui, or nitric acid, is gene- 
rally energetic, and is probably always the same amid the 
same conditions. Put cuper or mercure, for example, and 
the same may be said of some others, though not of all the 
metals, into it, and the rationeality of what will be found to 
take place there appears to be this : the fifth particle of the 
oxe that is attached to the niter of the substance in question, 
quitting its connection, unites with the metal of which we are 
speaking, while this same metal, becoming viporectue, yields 
reno to the aqua of the aquaniteruqui before us, and thus enables 
it to become perfect, and so to retire from what now becomes 
niteroxatiqua, or nitrous acid. This being done, the metal, 
quitting the oxe, takes the place of the hige of the aqua that 
is found in a portion of the aquaniteruqui under consideration ; 
while that same hige combines with the oxe which this metal 
has just deserted, as already mentioned, and thus a particle 
of water is formed. And while the third and fourth particles 
of oxe of the niteroxatiqua in question combines with the 
metal before us, that metal, in order to become enabled to 
receive the same oxe, must become viporectue by yielding 
reno to the remaining niteroxitibi or binoide of nitrogen, so 
that the latter becomes expanded and enabled to rise. 

(b,) Mix Higeclorato, or hydrocloric acid, and aquaniteru- 
qui together, and into that mixture put any metal ; and, while 
the fifth particle of the oxe that is connected with the niter of 
the aquaniteruqui in question combines with the hige of our 
higeclorato, forming thus water, the clore of the same com- 
pound, being so deserted, in a state nascent and renorectue 
will combine with this metal, and thus give rise to a Metale- 
clorite, or a cloride of the same metal ; but this metal, in order 
to receive that clore, must become viporectue ; and if it does 
so by abandoning reno, as most of the metals are found to do, 
the same ethere thus relinquished will render perfect the 
aqua which existed in the aquaniteruqui, and which can no 



CHEMISTRY — ETHEREAL. 71 

longer adhere to what has now become niteroxatiqua ; but if 
the metal in question becomes viporectue as zince does by 
acquiring vipo, in addition to its natural share of that kind of 
ethere, it will take the same from the calore of space, and 
thus enable reno to pass to the aqua, as we have just above 
said. 

(c.) Throw this aquaniteruqui upon burning charcoal and 
the history of what will take place there appears to be thus : 
the fifth particle of the oxe which is attached to the niter of 
our substance, quitting its connection, and being already in a 
state renorectue, combines more readily than the oxe of the 
atmosphere around it is disposed to do, with the carbonea 
which is just arising from the same fire, and thus the carbo- 
nea in question becomes transformed to carboneoxatubi, and 
so passes off; but in receiving this oxe the carbone of that 
carbonea must relinquish a portion of reno, which restores to 
its perfecc state, and aids in converting to vapor, the aqua that 
leaves what now becomes niteroxatiqua. That the carbone 
surrenders something in this case is obvious from the cir- 
cumstance that it is rendered more dense in the carboneoxa- 
tubi than it is in the carbonea, and that this something is 
reno, appears from the fact that carbonea and oxe can be made 
to combine together like hige and oxe by means of what is 
called the electric spark. If the fonrth particle of the oxe in 
this niteroxatiqua leaves its connection there for any cause, 
the remaining niteroxatiter, or hyponitrous acid, will become 
expanded ; for this last mentioned substance is specifically 
lighter than is niteroxatiqua. And again, if the third particle 
of oxe in this niteroxatiter deserts it, the remaining niteroxi- 
tibi, or bionoxide of nitrogen, also becomes expanded ; and 
still again, if the second particle in this niteroxitibi is driven 
from it, the remaining nitera or protoxide of nitrogen likewise 
becomes expanded, and finally niter itself is lighter than is 
the last mentioned substance. And we know that all these 
expansions are effected by reno ; and we have just seen that 
if these portions of oxe thus liberated should combine, each 
with a portion of carbonea, there would be thence driven a 
quantity of free reno, which would produce, we conclude, 
here, the expansions in question. We perceive, then, that in 
the combustion of which we are speaking the carbonea is 
carried off more rapidly by means of aquaniteruqui than it is 
by the oxe of the same heated atmosphere where it is gene- 
rated ; and so the combustion is rendered more luminous, as 
well as more rapid, than it would otherwise be. 

Put the article of which we are speaking upon the other 



72 PHYSICS. 

substances, and we shall have, as the escaping result, some- 
times pure niter, and sometimes nitera ; sometimes niteroxi- 
tibi, and then again perhaps, niteroxatiter — according to cir- 
cumstances—while at other times niteroxatiqua will remain ; 
but an instance of the kind being ^iven, the minutias of the 
operations that take place in it, or some of them at least, may 
be generally particularized. 

(d) Put sulphuroxatibi, or sulphurous acid, which, remem- 
ber, is a liquid, into a metallic vessel, and suppose platine, 
which furnishes reno slowly, and apply heat in the common 
acceptation of that phrase, and our liquid, becoming heated, 
will have a tendency to be suddenly metamorphosed to vapor, 
but does not for sometime obtain the requisite quantity of reno 
to be so. Some water now put into the vessel with it yields 
that reno which carries it off as vapor, leaving the water so 
put transformed' to ice there. 

(90.) Bring a piece of cold ice, which has in or adjoining 
it a thermometer, and the reader must be presumed to know 
something at least respecting that instrument, near to a fire, 
and the first reno that now comes to this ice will carry off its 
redundant vipo in calore ; and so it will contract in size for 
some minutes, or at least seconds, while the mercure in the 
thermometer that is attached to it or in it is being expanded. 
At length, however, the reno which finds its way to our ice 
begins to enter it, and so to expand it also a little, a process 
that continues till the mercure above mentioned rises in the 
tube of the instrument before us to zero C. And now the ice 
appropriates to itself all the reno it can seize, allowing none 
to enter the mercure, and becomes thus metamorphosed to 
water ; and so our mercure will rise in the tube where it. is 
confined to about 9 C. before the water of which we are 
speaking begins to expand at all. And the converse of this 
process is thus : we have water, and in it a thermometer, 
whose mercure stands at about 9 C, the very point, as we 
shall soon perceive, where the water in question should 
freeze. But this water has been relinquishing reno, and thus 
cooling down ; and this cooling of water happens never to 
stop at the latter's exact point of congelation — a constant ac- 
cident which is by no means a solitary one in nature. The 
cooling of which we are speaking continues till the mercure 
in question comes down to about 4^ C. ; and a reaction now 
takes place, and the water seizes all the free reno in its vici- 
nity, allowing none to enter the mercure, and even robs that 
mercure of a portion of the reno which it actually has till it 
falls to zero, and in some cases to about —2 C. Meantime the 



tjHEMISTRV--ETHEREAL. 73 

\Vater expands at the expense of the mercure and of the 
things around itself, so as to occupy the space which it did 
when the mercure was at about 9 C. in its tube. Acicular 
crystals of ice begin now to be formed, which cross each 
Cther at an angle of 60 degress, and thus the resulting solid 
occupies the space which it did in the liquid state when the 
mercure in the tube within it was at about 11 C ; and so it 
becomes something like one-ninth lighter than water is while 
in the same mediue with it ; and of course it will always 
float upon any water where it may be. And from this we 
perceive that the point of congelation for water is indicated, 
not by zero, but by about 9 C. And further we perceive here 
that one substance may have a greater appetency for ethere 
than another has, and a greater one too in some particular states 
than it has in others ; and extending our views we may con- 
ceive from this little incident, perhaps, how a mass of vapor 
may be left to condense to solid bodies in the regions of 
space around us by the very same reno that expands an ex- 
isting systema of them to vapor again. 

(6.) The reader is presumed to have seen the mercure in 
the common thermometer expanded by means of heat reflect- 
ed upon it from a lamp, or a heated piece of metal ; and that 
when ice is substituted for this lamp or metal, the same mer- 
cure contracts in size. Now the true explanation of the lat- 
ter phenomeno is that the ice radiates vipo, which, falling 
upon the instrument before us, carries off its reno, so that the 
mercure within it becomes contracted in dimensions. Here 
then is a real radiation of cold ; and remember that heat and 
cold, though not exactly, are yet nearly synonymous with 
reno and vipo, and may be often so used. 

(91.) Rub the fur on a cat's back with any thing whatever 
that has been hitherto thus tried, and the vipo of the rubber 
so used will pass to the fur, while the reno of the fur will go 
to the rubber ; and, perhaps, a portion of the calore of space 
also becomes now decomposed, its vipo going to the fur and 
its reno to the rubber here mentioned. These two bipetentes, 
meeting and combining together, occasion, sometimes, sparks 
of light, while the sudden expansion and subsequent con- 
traction of the air that are caused by this combination give 
forth, now and then, a snapping and crackling noise ; and 
possibly there may be an actual combustion of niter in oxe 
here, which also would affect the vacue now alluded to. 

(b.) Rub sealing wax with any thing, except a metal, hitherto 
tried for this purpose, and the vipo of the wax, and probably 
some also of the same kind of ethere from the calore of space 

7 



74 PHYSICS. 

will pass to the rubber, while the reno of the rubber, or of a 
portion of the calore of space, will lodge upon the wax, which 
is etheriheder generally and at present Renosede, or affording 
a seat for reno. 

(c.) Rub sealing wax with a metal, and the vipo thus 
evolved, being unable otherwise to dispose of itself conve- 
niently, will lodge upon the wax, while the reno so disen- 
gaged either enters and expands the metal, or carries off its 
redundant vipo in calore. 

(92.) Silk, which is etheriheder, becomes renofer when 
rubbed upon glass, and vipofer when rubbed with any thing 
else that has been thus far tried in this case. And the next 
substance in the order of viposedes are, first, downy feathers ; 
and second, soft wool, or rather the nap of fine woolen cloth, 
&c. ; and when the latter is rubbed with the human hand in 
a very cold atmosphere, the same phenomenoes appear that 
present themselves upon the back of a cat, in the same pre- 
dicament. And this assertion is true in regard to silk also. 
Threads of this substance are found sometimes to be drawn 
from each other by the reno of the atmosphere around them, 
and especially if suspended there ; and the cause of their 
being so is obvious. The vipo of either of these threads 
will be more likely to find it opposite bipetente in the direc- 
tion away from the rest of them than it will do so in their 
immediate vicinity, so that we find no Repulsion, as is gene- 
rally believed, here. Nor is there such a thing as a sponta- 
neous one in nature. 

(b.) Suppose we have a wheel that can easily rotate, and 
one at least of whose radiues is etberiodo, and readily flexible. 
Now extend this radiue beyond the periphery, and bend it to 
a right angle in the plane of the wheel in which it is thus 
found. Ethere passing off at the bent extremity of this radiue 
will cause our wheel to rotate, and that too in the direction 
adverse to the course of the same ethere which thus causes 
what appears, at first thought, a repulsion. But such is not 
in reality the case here. Our ethere passing off at the point 
of which we are speaking to the right, we suppose, as here p> 
represented, becomes there neutralized, according to the ob- 
ject of its ever moving at all in any case. Another particle 
of it comes to the same point, and, turning backward in order 
to find, as it must actually do there, more of its opposite bipe- 
tente than it could find directly ahead, where the previous 
particle of the same kind of thing has just been neutralized, 
draws the point, and consequently the wheel under conside- 
ration around to the left in a rotatory manner. And thus we 



CHEMISTRY ETHEREAL. 75 

•have no repulsion here. In fact two currents of the same 
kind of ethere will pass each other peaceably and quietly upon 
the same wire or etheriodo article, provided that is the most 
direct and passable way in which each can meet its opposite 
bipetente, and thus become neutralized to a state of quies- 
cence. And do not forget here what we have frequently 
shown in the course of these remarks — that the reason why 
two currents of the same kind of ethere will move along 
readily together, side by side, as they are found in any case 
to do, is, that such happens then to be the way in which they 
will the most easily accomplish their grand and their only 
object in moving at all, which is to become neutralized with 
their opposite bipetente. 

Two parallel currents of the same kind of ethere are pass- 
ing along, suppose, in the same direction, and, any change in 
the course of either of them quite around the horizon to its 
present position again will bring it very obviously, more or 
less, in contact with the other, where it will be less likely to 
find its opposite bipetente, and especially at more liberty than 
it would otherwise be. And here we have at once the expla- 
nation of all the phenomenoes that appear in the experiments 
of Oersted, Ampere, and Arago, in this respect, and the his- 
tory of which is given in the recent edition of Turner's Chim- 
istry. There is no such thing as a direct and positive repul- 
sion, whatever the appearance may be in any of these cases. 
What does appear here is all attraction, or, in other words, 
the search of vipo for reno. Turn to the 17th figure in the 
work just mentioned, and under the head of Galvanism, and 
you will readily perceive that vipo is there represented as 
descending along a wire that is indicated by A B, and so 
passing near to the boreal extremity, N, of an indicevipote, 
which is there placed for the purpose of the experiment now 
before us. And the consequence is that the extremity N, of 
which we have just been speaking, is drawn a little to the 
right ; and why is it so ? To this question the answer is that 
there is a current of vipo which comes up in a spiral manner 
from the right side of our N, and passes over to the left, and 
falls in with the descending current just mentioned of the 
same thing, and so the two currents, thus united, pass on- 
ward peaceably together in pursuit of one common object — 
reno. Move N around to the left, as it is now to the right of 
A B, and the current of vipo which leaves it would become 
opposed to that of A B, and would therefore recede from the 
same, taking that point N along with itself, in pursuit of the 
same reno which it sought in the other case, and which 



76 PHYSICS. 

would be likely to be more abundant and free elsewhere tbaU 
in the immediate vicinity of the wire in question. And in a 
similar manner are all the phenomenoes of which we are 
speaking to be explained. 

(c.) Ethere being drawn into a body, or mass of materia, 
drives its particles asunder to be sure ; and so in case of elas- 
ticity, a body pressed from its natural shape will return, when 
left to the requisite liberty, back to the same, but there is no 
original or spontaneous repulsion here. It is attraction which 
keeps the particles of your body together, and acts upon your 
nerves and muscles, and thus enables you to handle the bee- 
tle ; and it is attraction which gives weight and firmness to 
that beetle, and coherence to the wedge ; and when, as the 
result of ail those attractions, that wedge is driven into any 
substance, the latter is more or less divided, one part from 
another of it, so that repulsion, such as does really exist any 
where, is only the necessary consequence, we perceive, of 
attraction. 

(93.) The atmosphere above and around us, though some- 
what etheriheder, is not, remember, etheriodo, and the same 
is true, as we have said, of glass, sealing wax, &c. And 
hence any of the metals which are all naturally etheriodo, 
become etheriheder when surrounded with common air, or 
glass, &c. ; and in that condition it is said to be Insulated — 
that is, the ethere which may be upon it cannot pass off or 
away from it when thus circumstanced. And such was the 
predicament of the needle which we supposed above (SO) to 
be placed upon water. 

(b.) The ordinary method of insulating a body is to place 
it upon a pillar of glass, and thus it will have no etheriodo 
connection with the earth ; or, in other words, it becomes 
then insulated from the earth, and may be, in that situation, 
made to have a quantity of free ethere upon it, or it thus be- 
comes etheriheder. 

(c.) Bring a body that has free ethere near another that has 
none upon itself; and yet not so near that the ethere of the 
first body will pass, as it would tend mote or less to do, to 
the second one, and you will have in that second body what 
is called Induction — a bad term, however, for which Produc- 
tion should be substituted, inasmuch as a certain state or con- 
dition is thus, not Induced, or brought from abroad upon such 
body, but Produced, o*r occasioned in it. Its vipo and reno 
will endeavor to go the one which is opposite in kind to the 
free ethere of the approaching body to the same, and the 
other in the opposite direction, And if they actually pass in 



CHEMISTRY ETHEREAL. 77 

that manner, the body approached, as here specified, becomes 
as much struck with lightning as any thing ever is so. 

(94.) We pass now to the operations of the apparatue ethe- 
real commune, (66) with which the reader must be presumed 
to be acquainted. And here we have to observe that what is 
usually called the prime conductor there, we shall name the 
Vipocarcer, or prison for vipo ; and what is there vulgarly 
termed the negative conductor we shall denominate the Reno- 
career, or the prison for reno, and the chain or wire from the 
vipocarcer, will be with us the vipodo or passage for vipo, 
while that from the renocarcere will be the Renodo, or pas- 
sage for reno. 

(b.) Rub the glass cylinder or plate, and the reader must 
be presumed to know what is here meant with silk, and the 
phenomenoes of which we have spoken above (86) will take 
place ; the vipo remaining for the moment upon the viposede 
(78) or glass in question, whence it passes to the vipocarcer 
along pointed wires or etheriodoes which project from it for 
that purpose, while the reno is found upon the renocarcer 
which is sometimes merely the renosede or rubber itself. 
Zincemercurite, called an amalgama of zince, and Stanemer- 
curite, termed in the vulgar nomenclature an amalgama of 
tin, being put upon this rubber, is found to increase the quan- 
tity of ethere now collected ; and perhaps this increase is 
due to the oxition which evidently occurs in regard to those 
metals ; a point which we shall not stop just now to discuss. 
A quantity of ethere, being so collected, and the proper con- 
nection made in the case, the vipo passes along the vipodo 
and combines with the reno which comes at the same time 
along the renodo, and the light and sound above (77 and 78) 
spoken of take place ; and if a thick sheet or card of paper is 
held between the free extremities of these etheriodoes in the 
case before us, its specific calore will be somewhat decom- 
posed — reno from that paper will meet the vipo which comes 
along the vipodo, and the two bipetentes, uniting together, 
will become thus neutralized, and occasion, in that way, both 
a sound and a light, while the vipo from the paper will meet 
the reno from the renodo, and become also neutralized in the 
same manner ; and after the process a perforation will appear 
through the paper in question with a bur at each extremity of 
it or both sides of the same paper. And the cause of these 
burs is obvious. One of them is made b) r the pulling force 
of the vipo, while the other is done by that of the reno of our 
paper in the act of leaving it. 

(c.) In the process of ethereating persons by means of the 
7* 



78 PHYSICS. 

apparatue of which we are speaking, the vipo from its vipore- 
carcer is neutralized by reno from the one who is connected 
therewith, while a corresponding portion of his vipo is neu- 
tralized, in case he is alone, by reno from the renocarcer of 
the apparatue ; though if others are with him here, then a 
portion of his vipo becomes neutralized by reno from the one 
whose hand he holds ; and at all events a portion of vipo 
from the last one of the ring here indicated is neutralized by 
reno from the renocarcer before us. Let this apparatue be 
in actual operation and the free extremity of the renodo held 
at your feet or legs while that of the vipodo is near your 
head, and your hair will be drawn upward by reno escaping 
therefrom to meet the approaching vipo, and thus causing 
your head to feel cool. 

(d.) To either of the ethericarcers of the apparatue before 
us attach a vessel that has water in it, and a small orifice in 
its bottom, or through either of its sides, and below the sur- 
face of that water, and the same will run from the orifice, now 
specified more rapidly, while our apparatue is in operation, 
than while it is not so ; and the reason of its doing so is that 
the ethere with which this water becomes so charged drags 
the same along in search of its opposite bipetente in the 
atmosphere within its vicinity. 

(95.) In charging a jar, as the act is termed, from the vi- 
pocarcer of the apparatue of which we are speaking, a por- 
tion of the reno of the space within that jar comes out and 
meets the vipo from the vipocarcer before us, causing a light 
and a sound ; and so the two etheres here mentioned become 
neutralized, as heretofore often explained, while the vipo 
thus liberated passes to the internal surface of that jar, and 
attempts to combine with the reno which it perceives through 
the thickness of the same, and at or near its outside ; and the 
struggle of this reno of the space around that jar, to effect the 
union here indicated, becomes so great that it lets go its own 
vipo, which escapes to the earth in case it finds a passage 
thither ; and the usual provision for such passage consists of 
a chain which is attached by one of its ends to the jar under 
consideration, while the other one touches the floor or ground 
work, and, of course, the same must not be insulated from the 
earth, upon which the apparatue before us may be at the same 
time standing. And here the reader is presumed to be aware 
that if no such passage is found, the vipo of which we are 
speaking will not retire, but will hold its reno, so that the lat- 
ter will not seek the vipo upon the inside of the jar, and so 
the last mentioned quantity of vipo will not permit its reno to 



CHEMISTRY ETHEREAL. 79 

meet the vipo from the viporcarcer of the apparatue now- 
used ; and thus the jar in question will not become charged 
at all. .And the reader will probably know, and if not we 
assure him, that the converse of all this will take place if our 
jar is charged from the renocarcer of the same apparatue. 
And further, we may add here in passing, that a jar may be 
charged with reno from the point where the steam begins to 
expand apparently, or rather to condense as it issues from 
the boiler where it is generated, for there is our reno largely 
evolved ; and hence the reason why it feels hotter there than 
it does in the boiler itself. In reference to what we have 
said above we have now to remark, moreover, that however 
cautious ethere may be in its movements, it is thrown, occa- 
sionally, into quantities where it is not quiescent, and then 
must take place an explosion or neutralization of it. 

(b) A person recently observed in my hearing, that hav- 
ing a quantity of Silveroniteruqui, or what is usually called 
the nitrate of silver, in a glass vial, he put into it some alco- 
hol and also a little oil of cloves ; and that in the course of 
a few days afterward he discovered silver deposited upon the 
internal surface of the same vessel ; while the oil above 
mentioned had become inspissated, or thickened and har- 
dened ; and the rationeality of this circumstance is doubt- 
less thus : the hige of the oil was made, and no matter now 
for what particular reason, to take the place of the silver in 
the silveroniteruqui under consideration, which become in 
that way changed to aquaniteruqui, while the silver itself thus 
nascent and viporectue, found reno upon the internal surface 
of the vial in question, and so became perfect, and remained 
there, deposited along with a portion of vipo which was thus 
liberated, and left to seek, as above explained, a union with 
the reno upon the outward side of the same vial ; and thus 
our vial become coated upon its inward side, and charged, in 
the technical sense of those terms, at once, though it would 
not have become so had not the vipo which must have left 
the reno just mentioned upon the outward side of this vial 
found means to escape. 

(c.) A jar, or plate of glass, that is charged in the usual 
way, sometimes discharges itself; or, in other words, the 
two bipetentes of ethere which are lodged upon it meet each 
other, and so become neutralized at the edge of such plate or 
at the mouth of such jar, as the case may be ; and in this 
occurrence the glass of which we are speaking is now and 
then broken ; and we have to add here, that this breaking 
takes place, not in consequence of any momentue which ari- 



80 



PHYSICS. 



ses from the Pushing or Pressure of either of the bipetentes 
before us toward the other ; but in consequence of the strain 
occasioned by their pulling— that is, while rushing together 
they hold upon the glass, or rather, become connected with 
its specific calore so firmly as to take portions of it along 
with theirselves — an instance of dyname chimic in a modi- 
fied form. 

(96) We shall now give our attention to the apparatue 
ethereal galvanic, (67) the operations of which the reader 
must be presumed to have witnessed ; and to know that it 
consists of plates of two, one from another different metals, 
arranged alternately, which are most commonly of zince and 
cuper ; and that a wire or etheriodo filament, which is called 
the Anodo or upward passage, is connected with the cuper ; 
and that another one, which is termed the Cathodo or down- 
ward passage, is connected with the zince one. 

It is found in this case that the same surface of metal is 
more efficient when in small than it is when in large por- 
tions ; and the reason of this is, doubtless, as follows : the 
small plates collect some vipo from their immediate vicinity, 
in addition to what comes down the wire cathodo, while the 
large ones, being less in number than the smaller plates must 
be, for both systemas are here supposed to present the same 
extent of surface, will have a smaller range of vicinity than 
the others will have. And beside this circumstance, some of 
the vipo which actually comes to them along the wire cathodo 
will be likely to be dissipated, without causing its results to 
pass as they would, if they passed at all here, in an oblique, 
an indirect course to the wire anodo. 

(97.) A B, fig. 1, the partition e f, which appears in it 
being supposed to be removed, is a vessel 
that contains aqua, and in that aqua we 
have a small quantity of Aquasulphuruter, 
or sulphuric acid. Z is a plate of zinc, 
and C is another one of cuper ; and it 
should not be here supposed that these 
are the only metals that will be suitable 
for the purpose before us. The lamelar 
form is usually adopted, in order that more surface may, than 
otherwise could, be had in this case. 

The metals in question are connected, we suppose, by the 
wires or filaments, or portions in whatever shape, C d and 
Z d y of any etheriodo substance ; and this being done, we 
shall soon have an instance of dyname chimic. The vipo of 
a particle of zince seeks to combine with the reno of the oxe 



*f**\ 



CHEMISTRY ETHEREAL. 81 

of the aqua that is found in a portion of the aquasulphuruter 
in question ; and accordingly it causes that particle of zince 
to take the place of the hige of the aqua just above mentioned ; 
and thus, instead of aquasulphuruter, we have zinceasulphu- 
ruter, or the sulphate of the protoxide of zinc. Meantime the 
hige, being thus expelled by the zince, and being also unable 
to rise at a, for the reason that it is in the Nascent state, as 
chimistes express it, and consequently as dense and as heavy 
in proportion to its bulk as the liquid is of which it recently 
constituted a part, is drawn by its vipo, and thus made to 
attack the next particle of aquasulphuruter toward b, and to 
drive out its hige and take possession of the oxe with which 
that hige was connected, while this last mentioned portion of 
hige, being thus expelled, is made by its vipo to attack, in the 
same manner as just described, the next particle of aquasul- 
phuruter toward b, and to drive out its hige and take posses- 
sion of the oxe with which that hige was connected, and so 
onward as represented in the diagrama, till finally the hige 
expelled, as already particularized at b, or in the vicinity of 
the cuper plate C, is met by a portion of reno which magni- 
fies it about 12,000 times, and carries it off, in case it is not 
intercepted on its passage, to the atmosphere above and around 
it. And at the same time the vipo of the calore of the space 
there, which being decomposed yielded the reno in question, 
passes along the wire C d, around in the direction of the 
arrow in the diagrama to the zince plate Z, and enables that 
metal, or a portion of it, to unite, as it did before, with the oxe 
of the aqua of the aquasulphuruter in our vessel, and that too 
more readily than it would otherwise do so. 

And here we shall repeat, substantially, what we have just 
been saying — thus : The reno in the particle of calore in the 
vicinity of the cuper plate C, wishes to combine with the 
vipo of the liberated hige under consideration, and the vipo of 
the same particle, perceiving that it can pass to where it 
anticipates more happiness than it now enjoys, permits its 
reno to do so, and thus actually passes thither ; and, all cir- 
cumstances considered, I conclude that the identical particles 
of vipo which are liberated at C, become active at Z, in this 
case ; for if we suppose that a particle of vipo disturbed at C, 
unites with the next particle of reno, and thus liberates ano- 
ther particle of vipo, as we have supposed in regard to the 
hige of which we have just been speaking, the question will 
arise and remain unanswered — what office does the wire 
perform, and what good does it do in this case ? And if we 
suppose that the vipo in question passes within the substance 



82 



PHYSICS. 



of the wire before us, that supposition may be met by the 
suggestion that, many instances occur where surface, and not 
solid content, is the object in experiments of this kind. 

Here, then, we have the second kind of ethere for which 
chimistes, and especially the disciples of Dufay, who sug- 
gested its existence, about a hundred years ago, have been so 
long looking in vain. They have looked for it carefully and 
anxiously, but they have not found it ; and the reason why 
they have not done so is, they have not looked in the right 
place for it. They have supposed it lo be passing in opposi- 
tion to the vipo from Z to C in this case, but such, we per- 
ceive, is not the fact here. 

The hige in the case before us obtains something which 
magnifies it nearly twelve thousand times ; and this some- 
thing must have been gotten in the vicinity of the cuper plate 
C, and seems not to have been found or attainable at a. And 
again, if this something is common calore, as it may be at 
first thought supposed to be, why is it not obtained any where 
betwixt a and b, as well as just at b ? And still again, if this 
something is vipo, how does it happen that a quantity of the 
same passes around to Z ? This hige obtains something here 
we repeat to the Franklinian electricians, and emphatically 
to them who contend that there is but one kind of what they 
call electricity, or what I denominate ethere, and that some- 
thing is not very probably a portion of the same kind of thing 
which escapes ; for if it were so, then the escaping essentia, 
be it what it may be, should be more abundant upon other 
occasions, when there is no nascent hige, or any thing else, 
to require a portion of it, than it is now when such hige is 
actually present. The fact is, here is a decisive proof, which 
has never, to my knowledge, been heretofore noticed, of at 
least two distinct, kinds or primary classes of ethere. 

(98.) Respecting the Constant Battery, so called, the con- 
struction or arrangement and rationeality are as follows : Z 
is a piece of zince in the left hand, while C is any etheriodo 
subsfance in the right apartment of the vessel A B, fig. 1 ; 
and the partition ef, which is now supposed to be present, 
consists of something that is porous, such as paper or animal 
membrane, a thin piece of wood, or of unglazed earthenware ; 
and in both of these apartments we have water, and together 
with the water in the apartment C, we have Cuperisulphuru- 
ter, or the sulphate of the protoxide of copper or vitriol, 
while aquasulphuruter is put into that where Z is found. And 
here again we have an instance of dyname chimic. A par- 
ticle of zince is made, as heretofore, to take the place of the 



CHEMISTRY— ETHEREAL. 83 

hige of the aqua in the aquasulphuruter just spoken of ; and 
that hige being thus expelled, takes the place of another por- 
tion of the same thing in the aquasulphuruter toward the parti- 
tion ef, and the particle of hige there evolved, being nascent, 
as usual in such cases, and finding no more aquasulphuruter, 
and being in the vicinity of the cuperisulphuruter, at the right 
hand of the partition e f, above mentioned, is made by its 
vipo to take the place of the cuper in the first particle which 
it finds of that cuperisulphuruter ; and thus this last mention- 
ed substance becomes converted to aquasulphuruter, which 
will be drawn very naturally, not among the particles of the 
cuperisulphuruter at the right, but through the partition e f, 
among those of its own kind to the left, and ultimately to the 
zince plate Z, when needed there. And the cuper liberated, 
as just now mentioned, is made to act as the hige above spo- 
ken of was made to do, till finally a particle of cuper is 
evolved in the vicinity of C, the etheriodo substance, and, 
being nascent, is drawn by its vipo directly to that substance 
for reno, which renders it perfect, and allows it to remain 
deposited there in its metalic state. Meantime the vipo that 
is deserted by the reno which has thus gone to the vipo of 
the cuper, passes along the wire C k in the direction of the 
arrow in the diagrama, around to the zince plate Z, and ena- 
bles a portion of that metal to do what a similar particle of 
it has just done, as already explained, and that too more 
readily than it did in the first instance. That the action takes 
place here from one to the next particle, as we have just de- 
scribed, is obvious, for otherwise the first particle of hige set 
free would be drawn, as may be, I think, reasonably supposed, 
directly to C, and thus made to rise instead of the deposition 
of cuper there. It is furthermore obvious here, that the same 
vipo which the cuper in this case, or the hige in that of the 
common galvanic battery, of which we have heretofore spo- 
ken, liberates, in becoming perfect, enables the zince to take 
the place of*the hige in either of them, so that, if we remove 
the cuper, or etheriodo substance C, from the common gal- 
vanic apparatue, the vipo of a particle of calore in the vicinity 
of the zince, which we suppose to remain, would go to that 
metal, while the reno of the same particle would go to the 
hige of the aquasulphuruter, which also is supposed to re- 
main, and would enable that hige to retire and give place to 
the zince in question. And here we have at once the whole 
secret of all the phenomenoes of nature. Calore, or com- 
pound of vipo and reno, exists more or less throughout all 
space ; and these two etheres are so attached together that 



84 j>kvsiCs. 

neither can leave the other very readily in ordinary cases 
without its consent. And, in the case immediately before us, 
the vipo is permitted to go to the zince, because its associate 
reno can pass to the hige. Ferre or iron, instead of zince, 
here doe's not, I am inclined to think, judging from the den- 
sity of the resulting compound-, acquire any vipo in addition 
to its own proper quantity of that kind of ethere, but yields 
from itself, reno, to the hige in this case, though possibly it 
may acquire some vipo, while it parts with some reno; and, 
consistently with either of these suppositions, we have a 
sufficient explanation of what we observe in the well known 
process of obtaining hige by putting ferre into water that con- 
tains aquasulphuruter. 

To return : we thus witness a complicated process, which 
all occurs in consequence of the attachment that the two 
kinds, vipo and reno, of ethere, have for each other, and also 
for inerte, an attachment that remains invariable as long as 
circumstances do so. It implies nothing that we consider as 
discretion or reason ; and all we can say of it in the present 
state of our knowledge is, that it is the character of both vipo 
and reno to unite, the one with the other of them, and also 
more or less readily with every kind, simple or compound, 
of materia ; and that amid the proper circumstances each 
will leave one kind of materia for another kind of it, or any 
kind of it for its own opposite bipetente. 

(c.) It is the vipo of the nascent cuper, bear in mind, which 
draws it to C the etheriodo substance, and that too in pursuit 
of reno ; and we should not forget here that this nascent 
cuper is not pure inerte, nor yet is it perfect cuper. To be- 
come the latter it wants a quantity of reno. It cannot be* 
while in this nascent state, seen or caught, or even felt* 
heard, tasted, or smelt. 

The partition e f separates the cuperisulphuruter from the 
zince, and so prevents the nascent cuper from being, as it 
might be otherwise, drawn to that zince for renoj and thus 
made to interrupt the operation in the case before us. And 
here we may add, in passing, that this is what is called 
the Electrotype process. The cuper or other metal, for a 
similar thing may be done with other metals also besides 
cuper in this case, will be deposited equably upon any ethe- 
riodo substance ; and thus impressions or moulds can be taken 
in which may be cast the representation of things. Here 
we perceive why substances combine sometimes very readily 
in what chimistes have named their nascent state. They are 
obliged to do so unless they can obtain the requisite quantity 



CHEMISTRY — ETHEREAL. 85 

and kind of ethere to render them perfect ; for they cannot 
exist a moment in the state of which we are speaking, or, at 
any rate, no chimiste has ever yet been able to apply the test 
of his senses to a substance, I believe, while actually in that 
predicament. 

Furthermore, we perceive here that while one substance 
becomes gaseous another becomes solid, and hence we per- 
ceive how every group or cluster of material bodies in the 
regions of space has been and will be, an infinite number of 
times perhaps, in a state of vapor and recomposed again. 
To this suggestion I shall refer when I shall have come to 
show, as I intended to do in the course of this work, how 
the bodies in the regions of space above and around us, ob- 
tained their present form and motions. 

(99.) We return to the common galvanic battery ; and 
now the partition ef, fig. 1, must not be recognized or must 
be supposed to be removed. The wire C k, fig. 1, is sup- 
posed for the present to be terminated at k, while that idica- 
ted by Z s is ended at s ; and we have water betwixt k and 
s. In this case the vipo that ascends the wire anodo to k, as 
heretofore explained, magnifies the oxe of a particle of water 
there about eight hundred times, and thus carries it ofT; and 
at the same time the hige of the particle is made by its vipo, 
in search of reno, to attack the next particle of water toward 
s, and so onward, as a similar quantity of hige was made, a 
short time since, to do at a b, till finally the hige at s, being 
magnified by the reno it receives there, as hertofore explain- 
ed, nearly twelve thousand times, is thrown upward by the. 
denser fluid around it, while the vipo of the calore, which 
being decomposed yielded the reno in question at s, passes 
down to the zfnce plate Z ; and thus the operation is con- 
tinued ; and this last mentioned quantity of vipo, it should 
not be here forgotten, is not the same identically as that was 
which ascended from C to s, for that disappeared with the 
oxe that arose there ; and the popular opinion, that ethere 
passes upon water as it does upon the metals, requires, I 
think, some correction ; or, in other words, water is not, in 
the vulgar phrase, a conductor of electricity. 

We shall now put a piece of arsene at s, and the nascent 
hige will unite with it, instead of becoming perfect and thus 
rising as before ; while the arsene itself, in order to become 
enabled to form that connection, must give up a portion of its 
vipo, which passes to Z, as heretofore explained. Meantime 
the arsene has become renorectue in regard to the hige be- 
fore us ; and thus we shall have a quantity of Higearsenita, 

8 



86 PHYSICS. 

which is called in the books by the barbarotis term of the 
protohydruret of arsenic. 

And thus we perceive that while the vipo of the arsene 
passes to Z, its reno seeks the vipo of the hige in question, 
or rather, these two bipetentes seek each other, taking their 
materia along and binding it, the hige and the arsene, to- 
gether into one homogene mass. And thus again we have 
an instance of dyname chimic, and the same becomes cohe- 
sion ; and we shall find, hereafter^ instances in which we 
shall not be able to say, very readily, where the attraction of 
cohesion terminates and that of common gravitation comment 
ces. Nay, more, we shall demonstrate, or attempt to do so, 
that the one is only a modification of the other. 

We shall now put a little Higeniteritonter, or amonia, into 
the water which we have betwixt k and s, and the vipo tha! 
appears, as heretofore, at k, enables the niter of that amonia 
to rise there, while its hige takes the place of the hige in the 
next particle of amonia toward s, and so onward, as here- 
tofore explained, till finally the hige expelled at s obtains the 
requisite quantity of reno, as we have already often explain- 
ed, to enable it to rise ; and as a consequence vipo passes to 
Z, as heretofore. 

We now put mercure at s, and the hige of which we are 
speaking, instead of rising as before, unites with it ; but the 
latter, in order to effect this union, must give up a portion of 
its vipo, and thus become, in regard to the hige, renorectue, 
and the usual consequence, an action at Z, takes place. And 
thus we have here, instead of hige in its perfect state, a por- 
tion of Higemercurite, which is called in the books by the 
uncouth term of ammoniuret of mercury. This compound 
is not, however, permanent. Exposed to the atmosphere, it 
becomes soon decomposed. Its hige unites again with niter, 
and thus gives rise to amonia ; but this niter, in order to form 
that connection, must become renoreclue by giving up a por- 
tion of its vipo which the mercure seizes, and thus becomes 
perfect again. 

Instead of this amonia let us put into the water before us a 
metaleoxite, or metalea, united with one of those besates or 
acids which require water, and which we shall denominate, 
for the present at least, Aquabesates. In this case the oxe 
of the metalea in question will rise, leaving the aquabesate, 
and suppose aquasulphuruter at k. Meantime the metal so 
disturbed will take the place of the same thing in the next 
particle of what may be called here, Metale substituted for 
hige in an aquabesate, or Metalesubhigeinaquabesate, or 



CHEMISTRY ETHER ALE. 



87 



simply Metaleabesate ; and suppose Metaleasulphuruter to- 
ward s, and so onward, till finally a portion of the same 
metal becomes perfect at s, causing thereby a quantity of 
vipo to pass as usual to Z. 

If our metal is an alcalifiente one, however, or, in other 
words, if we have here Caleasulphuruter, that is, the sulphate 
of potash, the caje will no sooner become perfect at s than it 
will he made by its vipo Jo unite with the oxe of a particle of 
water, and thus to become calea at s ; but, in order to effect 
this connection, it must become viporectue by giving up a 
portion of its reno which the hige of that same water seizes, 
and becomes thus enabled to rise. And it is just as neces- 
sary for the cale to be rid of the reno in question as it is for 
the hige to receive it in this case. And hence we perceive 
the reason why it is that cale, sode, or lithe, burns more 
readily in water than it does in oxe ; and the rationeality of 
its burning in oxe is, that the vipo of the oxe combines with 
the reno of the metal, forming calore, which passes off, while 
the substances theirselves are thus left to combine together, 
and so to become an alcaly. And further, we have to add in 
this place, that what we have just said is true of many other 
chimical unions beside the one of which we are speaking. 

To return : the particle of cale disturbed at k could not 
unite immediately with the oxe of a particle of water there, 
•because that oxe was held by its hige ; but the particle of 
cale expelled at s, having obtained a quantity of reno, gives 
the same to the hige of a particle of water there, so that 
such hige, becoming perfect, can retire, leaving its oxe nas- 
cent to combine with the cale in question. And furthermore, 
we perceive here how ferre and zince conduct theirselves in 
the ordinary process of obtaining hige for filling balloons. 
The ferre itself, being put into dilute aquasulphuruter, seems 
to yield reno to the rising hige, while zince in the same pre- 
dicament appears to furnish it by decomposing the calore of 
space. And here bear in mind that the hige in question does 
not come from the water by which the aquasulphuruter under 
consideration is diluted, but from the aqua that is found in 
that aquasulphuruter, so that this substance becomes thus 
metamorphosed to Ferreasulphyruter, or Zinceasulphuruter, 
as the case may be. 

If we put mercure at s, the nascent cale in question will 
combine with it, and thus we shall have calemercurite, and 
the vipo which comes from the mercure will become active 
as usual at Z. And the same thing may be obtained by put- 
ting cale and mercure into, a glass tube and then shaking 



88 



PHYSICS. 



them together. The reno of the cale combines in this case 
with the vipo of the mercure, and thus calore is constituted, 
which passes off, leaving the two substances under conside- 
ration to combine as Calemercuriteq. Put into water, this 
substance is soon decomposed. The cale combines with the 
oxe, while the hige of that water takes reno from the calore 
of space, so that vipo can go to the mercure in question. 
Bear in mind, however, that if this vipo could not go to the 
mercure, as we have here suggested, it would not permit its 
associate reno to pass to the hige before us, so that this hige 
could not leave its oxe ; and thus the same oxe could not go 
to the cale, and consequently the compound in question could 
not become decomposed. 

We have now a piece of charcoal, and no water between 
k and s, where the wires in question are supposed to be re- 
spectively terminated ; and the vipo, coming up as usual, 
unites with that charcoal, and thus enables it to combine with 
some oxe of the atmosphere in which it is supposed to be 
found ; but this oxe, in order to effect this union, must sur- 
render a portion of its vipo, and the same passes, as usual, to 
Z. And here again we have an instance of dyname chimic, 
as we have in every chimical union. The oxe and the car- 
bone or charcoal, are bound in this case together into one 
homogene mass, to which we apply, for the moment at least, 
the general term of Carboneoxiteq. 

If away from the charcoal thus situated every thing capa- 
ble of becoming renorectue in regard to it is wholly excluded, 
and this can be done, of course, by effecting a vacue around 
it, the vipo which becomes active at k will take the place of 
the original vipo of that same charcoal, and thus, by means 
of its struggle and contest with its like, will cause a light, 
while the same like or vipo which is thus expelled from its 
connection in the charcoal will become active at Z, as here- 
tofore explained. 

We have next, suppose, a glass vessel, containing oxe and 
hige betwixt k and s, and the vipo which becomes active at 
k is neutralized by the reno of the hige in the vessel under 
consideration, and the vibration thus produced in the calore 
of space affects the eye, and is light, just as the vibration of 
the atmosphere above and around us affects the ear, and is 
sound to it. The hige thus deserted by a portion of its reno 
is drawn by its vipo in pursuit of other reno, and so made to 
combine with the oxe which we have supposed to be put into 
the same vessel, and thus to form water ; but this oxe, in 
order to effect that connection, must relinquish a portion of its 
vipo which passes to Z, as already often explained, 



CHEMISTRY ETHEREAL. 89 

Suppose, now, that we have aquasulphuruter betwixt k and 
s, and, in this case, the third particle of the oxe that is con- 
nected with the sulphur in the article before us, will be driven 
upward at k, while the aqua of the same article, leaving sul- 
phuroxatibi, or sulphurous acid, to which it can no longer 
adhere, will be drawn by its vipo in pursuit of reno to the 
next particle of aquasulphuruter toward s, and the last portion 
of aqua thus expelled will obtain reno and become perfect 
there, and so occasion the usual action at Z. 

Again, we have aquaniteruqui in the same situation above 
specified ; and here the fifth particle of the oxe that is con- 
nected with the niter of the compound under consideration 
will be pressed off in the usual manner at k, while the aqua 
of the same compound, leaving niteroxatiqua, or nitrous acid, 
to ascend, perhaps, or to become further decomposed, and 
thus to give rise to niteroxatiter, or niteroxitibi, &c, will be 
drawn, as that of the aquasulphuruter has just been imagined 
to be done. 

Still again — we have nothing, we suppose, but atmospheric 
air betwixt the extremities k and s of the wires in question ; 
and, if these extremities are wide asunder, none of the ac- 
tion under consideration will take place here ; but if they are 
near together, and yet not so near as to touch each other, 
and the requisite distance will depend, in this case, upon cir- 
cumstances — the end, k, of the wire, C k, may become burnt 
— that is, the vipo which comes to the extremity of which 
we are speaking may tempt the oxe of the atmosphere around 
it to combine with it, and thus to surrender a quantity of vipo, 
to pass in the accustomed manner to Z. And here we per- 
ceive that ethere is very cautious. It seldem leaps before it 
looks, and understands fully whither it is going, though it 
seems to be sometimes taken by surprise, and thus to be 
driven where it effects an explosion. Were the distance to 
s, the extremity of the wire Z s, too great for the vipo to pass 
conveniently thither, and thence to the zince plate Z, it 
would not have left the oxe in the case above supposed, and 
so that oxe could not have combined with the extremity of 
the wire before us, as just assumed, and then no vipo could 
have come to it from the vicinity of b or C ; and then no reno 
could have been obtained at that place ; and thus no hige 
would have been evolved there ; and thus no action would 
have taken place at Z, though never so much of vipo there 
might have been upon or near the piece of metal thus situa- 
ted, as heretofore described. 

If the extremity of the wire before us does not burn, then 
8* 



90 PHYSICS. 

the vipo at k will disturb the vipo of the next particle of calore 
toward s, in a manner similar to what we have heretofore 
said respecting the hige of water in a similar case ; till, 
finally, a disturbance and consequent vibration thus taking 
place, and a light appearing from one to the next particle of 
calore, the vipo expelled at s will pass in the usual manner 
to Z. And here we have at once the rationeality of light- 
ning in the heavens above and around us, of the aurorapolares, 
and of the trains of comets, subjects of which we have already 
spoken. And furthermore, I would add in this connection, 
that many instances may be observed when the two bipe- 
tentes in question appear to have a stronger appetency for 
each other than they have for any kind, simple or compound, 
of matter, and yet they seem to be, occasionally, a little in- 
constant. A quantity of the one kind of ethere will leave a 
portion of another kind of it for a new one of the same thing, 
just as animals change now and then their sexual partners. 
This change depends, however, in both of the cases now 
mentioned, alike upon circumstances, and for it there is al- 
ways an adequate cause, although that cause may not be at 
all times apparent. And here let us bear in mind that with- 
out a cause, and a sufficient and physical one too, no effect is 
to be admitted or supposed to have occurred in nature. 

(100.) As more and more of the aquasulphuruter that is 
used in the common galvanic battery becomes, during the 
operation to which it is there subjected, metamorphosed to 
zinceasulphuruter, the particles of zince that are detached 
from the zince plate Z, instead of taking, as they have been 
doing, the place of the hige in the aquasulphuruter in ques- 
tion, which may not be any longer near them, are made at. 
length to attack the zinceasulphuruter of which we have spo- 
ken, and thus zince becomes evolved, instead of hige, at the 
cuper plate C, and is there deposited, relinquishing the very 
same vipo which it received at Z, and which passes as usual 
up the wire anodo C k — a difficulty that is obviated by the 
constant battery above mentioned. And what I have hereto- 
fore frequently indicated, substantially at least, I would now 
repeat — that zince differs from the most of the other metals, 
while it resembles the most, if not all, of the blaceaples, in 
becoming viporectue by acquiring vipo in addition to its natu- 
ral share of that kind of ether,e. Cale, ferre, cuper, &c, be- 
come so, remember, by giving up a portion of their natural 
share of reno. And hence the reason why none of these last 
mentioned substances can be advantageously substituted for 
zince in the galvanic battery. Any Metalemercurite, or 



CHEMISTRY SYNTHETIC. 91 

amalgama, however, there substituted for it, will be found to 
perform its functions to a greater or less extent. And in this 
case the vipo which comes to the substitute in question ren- 
ders perfect, without moving, the mercure, while the other 
constituent of the same compound, being already viporectue, 
and thus becoming nascent, will be made, by its vipo, to take 
the place of the hige in the aquabesate where it is thus act- 
ing ; and so we shall have in the vessel before us a Metalea- 
besate, or, in other words, a sulphate or nitrate, as the case 
may be, of the protoxide of the metal that we combined or 
amalgamated, as above suggested, with the mercure. 

Hold in one of your hands the free extremity of one of the 
wires of the galvanic battery, and in your other hand that of 
the other wire, and, the apparatue being ready for operation, 
the vipo from the wire anodo will combine with reno from 
yourself, thus liberating a quantity of your vipo to pass, as 
usual, down the wire cathodo ; and if another is with you 
there, then your vipo, instead of passing down the wire ca- 
thodo, will be neutralized with reno from him, and thus a 
quantity of his vipo will be at liberty to pass in the usual 
manner down that wire, and so onward, for any number of 
persons thus positioned. 

(101.) We advance to Chimistry General Synthetic, (47.) 
And here we have to observe, that oxe may be, amid the 
proper circumstances, made to combine with each of the 
other hylaples, except fluor, and that in doing so it becomes 
there the ingredient renorectue. 

(b.) Clore becomes viporectue in connection with oxe 
only ; and thus we have here — 1st, Cloreoxata, or simply 
Clorea, (CI. O.) ; 2d, Cloreoxatiqua, (CI. 4 .) ; 3d, Cloreoxa- 
tiqui, (CI. 5 .) ; and 4th, Cloreoxatuse, (CI. O r ). 

(c.) Brome becomes viporectue in connection with oxe and 
clore; and hence we have here Bromeoxatoqui, (Br. 5 .); 
and again we have here Bromecloritoq, (q means in all such 
cases, Quere ? composition unknown,) or the cloride of brome. 

(d.) lode becomes viporectue in connection with oxe, 
clore, and brome ; and hence we have here — 1st, Iodeoxitaq, 
or the oxide of iode ; 2d, Iodeoxatiq, or the iodous acid ; 3d, 
Iodeoxatiqui, (I. 5 ) ; and 4th, Iodeoxatuse, (I. O r ) ; and 
also we have here — 1st, lodeclorita, (I. CI.) ; 2d, lodeclori- 
titer, (I. Cl 3 .) ; and 3d, Iodeclorituq, or the percloride of iode, 
and also Iodebromitoq, or the bromide of iode. 

(e.) Pursuing our course, of Sulphur we have — 1st, Sul- 
phuroxata, or, at any rate, a duplication of it, Sulphuroxata- 
bibi, (S 2 . 2 .) ; 2d, Sulphuroxatibi, (S. O r ) 3d, Sulphuroxa- 



92 



PHYSICS. 



tiquibi, (S 2 . 5 .), which is probably Sulphuroxatibisulphuru- 
ter, ((S. 2 .) (S. 3 )) ; and 4th, Aquasulphuruter, (Aq. S. 3 .), 
or (Aq. (S. 2 .) O), or oxited sulphite of water, or a sulphat 
of water; and also we have here — 1st, Sulphurcloritanbi, 
(S. 2 CI.); and 2d, Sulphurcloritu, (S. CI.) ; and also Sul- 
phurbromitoq, or bromide of sulphur, and also Sulphurioditoq, 
or the iodide of sulphur. 

(/.) Of Carbone we have — 1st, Carboneoxita, or simply 
Carbonea, (C. O.) ; 2d, Carboneoxatubi, which I generally, 
and especially in composition, write and speak Carboneubi, 
(C. 2 .) ; and 3d, Carboneoxatiy, (C 2 . 3 .), a bionigenabia, 
which seems to be Aquacarboneacarboneubi, (Aq. (CO.) 
(C. 2 .) ) ; and also — 1st, Carbonecloritanbi, (C 2 . CL) ; 2d, 
Carbonecloriti, (C. CI.) ; and 3d, Carboneclorituy, (C 2 . Cl 3 .) ; 
and also Corbonebromitoq, or the bromide of carbone ; and 
also — 1st, Carboneioditaq, or the protiodide of carbone ; and 
2d, Carboneiodituq, or the periodide of carbone ; and also Car- 
bonesulphuritobi, (C. S a .). [P. 41 for Corbone read Carbone.] 

(g.) Of Selene we have — 1st, Seleneoxita, or Selenea, 
(Se. 0.); 2d, Seleneoxatibi, (Se. 2 .) ; and 3d, Seleneoxa- 
tuter, (Se. 3 .) ; and also Selenesulphuratobi, (Se. S 2 .). 

(h.) Of Silone, or Silicone, we have Siloneoxatoter, or 
Silice, (Si. 3 .) ; and also Silonefluoritoter, (Si. F 3 .) ; and 
also Silonecloritoter, (Si. Cl 3 .) ; and 'also Silonebromitoter, 
(Si. Br 3 .). 

(i.) Of Borone we have Boroneoxatoter, (B. 3 .), or Bo- 
race, and also Boronefluoratoter, (B. F 3 .), and also Borone- 
cloritoter, (B. Cl 3 .). 

(j.) Of Phosphor we have — 1st, Phosphoroxatabiter, (P 3 . 
2 .) ; 2d, Phosphoroxati, or phosphori, (P. O.) ; 3d, Phos- 
phoroxatiter, (P. 3 .) ; and 4, Aquaphosphruqui, or the phos- 
phate of water, (Aq. P. 5 .), which may be (Aq. (P. 3 .) 2 .), 
or bioxited phosphite of water; and also — 1st, Phosphorclo- 
ritater, (P. CL.) ; and 2d, Phosphorclorituqui, (P. Cl 5 .) ; and 
also — 1st, Phosphorbromitanbi, (P 2 . Br.); and 2d, Phosphor- 
bromituqui, (P. Br 5 .) ; and also— 1st, Phosphorioditanbi, (P 2 . 
I.) ; 2d, Phosphonodititer, (P. I 3 .) ; and 3d, Phosphorioditu- 
qui, (P. I 5 .) ; and also— 1st, Phosphorsulphuritoq, or the sul~ 
phuret of phosphor ; and also Phosphorselenitoq, or the sele- 
nuret of phosphor. 

(k.) Of Niter we have — 1st, Niteroxita, or Nitera, (N. O.) ; 
2d, Niteroxitibi, (N. 2 .) ; 3d, Niteroxatiter, (N. 3 .) 4th, 
Niteroxatiqua, (N. 4 .), and 5th, Aquaniteruqui, (Aq. (N. 4 .) 
O.) ; or oxited nitrite of water ; and also Nitercloritoqua, 
(N. Cl 4 .) ; and also Niterioditoter, (N. I 3 .) ; and also Niter- 



CHEMISTRY — SYNTHETIC. 93 

sulphuritoq, or the sulphuret of niter ; and also Nitercarboni- 
tobi, or Cyane or Cyanogen, (N. C 2 ), a bionigenabia and a gas ; 
and also Niterphosphoritobi, (N. P 2 ). 

(/.) Of Arsene we have — 1st, Arseneoxatay, (As 2 . 3 .) ; 
and 2d, Arseneoxatuquibi, (As 2 . O..) ; and also — 1st, Arsene- 
clorita, (As. CI.); and 2d, Arseneclorituy, (As 2 . CI3 ) ; and 
also Arsenebromitoy, (As 2 . Br 3 .) ; and also Arseneioditoquibi, 
(As 2 . F 5 .) ; and also — 1st, Arsenesulphurita, (As. S.) ; 2d, 
• Arsenesulphuritiv, (As 2 . S 3 .) ; and 3d, Arsenesulphuriiuquibi, 

(*«r S,.). 

(m.) Of Telure we have — 1st, Telureoxitabi, (Te. 2 .) ; 
and 2d, Telureoxatuter, (Te. 3 .) ; and also Telureclorita, 
(Te. CI.); and also Teluresulphuritabi, (Te. S 2 .); and 2d, 
Teluresulphurituq, or the persulphuret of telure. 

(n.) Of iVlercure we have— 1st, Mercureoxita, or Mercu- 
rea, (M. O.) ; and 2d, Mereureoxitubi, (M. 2 .) ; and also — 
1st, Mercureclorita,(M. .01.) ; and 2d, Mercurecloritubi, (M. 
Cl a .); and also — 1st, Mercurebromita, (M. Br.); and 2d, 
Mercurebromitubi, (M. Br 2 .) ; and also — 1st, Mercureiodita, 
(M. I.); and 2d, Mercureioditubi, (M. I 2 .) ; and also — 1st, 
Mercuresulphurita, (M. S.) ; and 2d, Mercuresulphuritubi, 
(M. S 2 .) Mercure becomes renorectue to many of the met- 
als, and thus forms what are called, sometimes, amalgamas 
with them — an amalgama being any Metalemercurite ; in 
fact, the metals will generally run together in almost any pro- 
portion, and thus give rise to an homngeue mass. 

(0.) Of Platine we have — 1st, Platineoxita, or Platinea, 
(PI. 0.) ; 2d,Platineoxitiy, (Pl 2 . 3 .) ; and 3d, Platineoxitubi, 
(PI. 2 .) ; and also — 1st, Platineclorita, (PI. CI.); and 2d, 
Platinecloritubi, (PI. Cl 2 ) ; and also — 1st, Platineiodita, (PI. 
I.); and 2d, Platineioditubi, (PI. I 2 .) ; and also— 1st, Platine- 
sulphurita, (PI. S.); and 2d, Platinesulphuritubi, (PI. S r ). 

(p.) Of Aure we have — 1st, Aureoxita, or Aurea, (Au. 0.); 
2d, Aureoxitibi, (Au. 2 .) ; and 3d, Aureoxituter, (Au. 3 .) ; 
and also — 1st, Aureclorita, (Au. CI.) ; and 2d, Aureclorituter, 
(Au. Cl 3 .) ; and also — 1st, Aureiodita, (Au. I.) ; and 2d, Au* 
reiodituter, (Au. I 3 .) ; and also Auresulphuritoter, (Au. S 3 ). 

(q.) Of Silver we have Silveroxito, or Silvero, (Sil. O.) ; 
and also Silverclorito, (Sil. CI.) ; and also Silveriodito, (Sil. 
I). ; and also Silversulphurito, (Sil. S.) 

(r.) Of Palade we have — 1st, Paladeoxita, or Paladea, 
(Pd. 0.) ; and 2d, Paladeoxitubi, (Pd. o .) ; and also — 1st, 
Paladeclorita, (Pd. CI.) ; and 2d, Paladecforitubi, (Pd. Cl a .) ; 
and also Paladesulphurito, (Pd. S.). 

(s.) Of Rode we have — 1st, Rodeoxita, or Rodea, (R, 0.) ; 



94 



PHYSICS. 



and 2d, Rodeoxitubi, (R. 2 .) ; and also — 1st, Rodeclorita, 
(R. CI. j ; and 2d, Ro.decloritubi, (R. Cl 2 .) ; and also Rode- 
sulphurito, (R. S.). 

(t.) Of Osme we have — 1st, Osmeoxita, or Osmea, (Os. 
0.) ; 2d, Osmeoxitiy, (Os 2 . 3 .) ; 3d, Osmeoxitibi, (Os. 2 .) ; 
and 4th, Osmeoxituqua, (Os. 4 .) ; and also — 1st, Osmeclori- 
ta, (Os. CI.) ; 2d, Osmecloritiy, (Os 2 . Cl 3 .) ; 3d, Osmeclori- 
tibi, (Os. Cl 2 ) ; and 4th, Osmeclorituter, (Os. Cl 3 .) ; and also 
— 1st, Osmesulphurita, (Os. S.) ; 2d, Osmesulphuritiy, (Os 3 . . 
S 3 .) ; 3d, Osmesulphuritibi, (Os. S 2 .) ; and 4th, Osmesulphu- 
rituter, (Os. S 3 .). 

(m.) Of Iride we have — 1st, Irideoxita, or Iridea, (Ir. O.) ; 
2d, Irideoxitiy, (Ir 2 . 3 .) ; 3d, Irideoxitibi, (Ir. O a .) ; and 4th, 
Irideoxituter, (Ir. 3 .) ; and also — 1st, Irideclorita, (Ir. CI.) ; 
2d, Iridecloritiy, (Ir 2 . C! 3 ) ; 3d, Iridecloritibi, (Ir. Cl 2 .) ; and 
4th, Irideclorituter, (Ir. Cl 3 .) ; and its sulphuritions are pro- 
bably analogous, says Turner, to its oxitions and cloritions. 
It has a carbonition, which appears to be lridecarbonitoqua, 
(Ir. C 4 .) 

(v.) Of Hige we have — 1st, Higeoxita, or Hegea, or Aqua, 
(H. O.) ; and 2d, Higeoxitubi, doubtful and not permanent, 
(H. 2 .) ; and also Higefluorato, (H. F.) ; and also Hige- 
clorato, (H. CI.); and also — 1st, Higesulphurata, (H. S.) ; 
and 2d, Higesulphuratubi, (H. S 2 ) ; and also — 1st, Higecar- 
bonitanbi, (H 3 . C.) ; 2d, Higecarboniti, (H. C), or a duplica- 
tion of it, (H 2 . C 2 ) ; and many other carbonitions exist of 
Hige, such as the rosins volatile oils, naphtha, bitumine, &c. 
all bionigenabias ; and also — 1st, Higephosphorita, (H. P.) 
2d, a duplication of the same, (H 2 . P 2 .) ; and also Higeniteri- 
tonter, (H 3 . N.), or amonia, a bionigenabia in all cases, doubt- 
less, though found sometimes in minicoes ; and also — 1st, 
Higearsenita, (H. As.); and 2d, Higearsenituy. (H 2 . As 3 .) ; 
and also Higetelurato, (H. Te.). 

(w.) Of Cuper we have — 1st, Cuperoxitanbi, (Cu 2 . O.) ; 
2d, Cuperoxiti, or Cuperi, (Cu. O.) ; and 3d, Cuperoxitubi, 
(Cu. 2 .) ; and also — 1st, Cupercloritanbi, (Cu 8 . CI.) ; 2d, 
Cupercloriti, (Cu. CI); and 3d, Cupercloritubi, (Cu. Cl 3 .) ; 
and also Cuperioditonbi, (Cu 2 . I.); and also — 1st, Cupersul- 
phuritanbi, (Cu 2 . S.) ; and 2d, Cupersulphuritu, (Cu. S.) ; and 
also — 1st, Cuperphosphoritanter, (Cu 3 . P.); and 2d, Cuper- 
phosphoritubiter, (Cu 3 . P 8 ). 

(x.) Of Bisme we have — 1st, Bismeoxita, or Bismea, 
(Bi. O.) ; and 2d, Bismeoxituy, (Bi 2 . 3 .) ; and also Bisme- 
cloritobi, (Bi. Cl 2 ) ; and also Bismebromitobi, (Bi. Br 2 .) ; ancj 
also Bismesulphuritobi, (Bi. S ? .). 



CHEMISTRY — SYNTHETIC. 95 

(y.) Of Plumbe we have — 1st, Plumbeoxitanbi, (Pb 2 . 0.) ; 
2d, Plumbeoxiti, or Plurabei, (Pb. 0.) ; 3d, Plumbeoxitiquater, 
(Pb 3 . 4 .) ; (qua is four, and quater is four to three ;) and 4th, 
Plumbeoxitubi, (Pb. 2 .) ; and also Plumbeclorito, (Pb. CI.) ; 
and also Plumbebromito, (Pb. Br.) ; and also Plumbesulphu- 
rito, (Pb. S.) ; and also Plumbeiodito, (Pb. I.) ; and also 
Plumbesulphurito, (Pb. S.) ; and also Plumbecarbonitoq, or 
the carburet of lead ; and also Plumbephosphoritoq, or the 
phosphoret of lead. 

(z.) Of Thane we have — 1st, Titaneoxita, or Titanea, (Ti. 
0.) ; and 2d, Titaneoxitubi, (Ti. 2 .) ; and also Titaneclori- 
tobi, (Ti. Cl 2 ) ; and also Titanesulphuritobi, (Ti. S 2 .). 

(6f.) Of Cere we have — 1st, Cereoxita, or Cerea, (Ce. 0.) ; 
and 2d, Cereoxituy, (Ce 8 . 8 ) ; and also — 1st, Cereclorita, 
(Ce. CI.); and 2d, Cereclorituy, (Ce 2 . Cl 3 .) ; and also Cere- 
sulphurito, (Ce. S.). 

(aa.) Of Urane we have — 1st, Uraneoxita, or Uuranea, (U. 
O.) ; and 2d, Uraneoxituy, (U 2 . 3 .) ; and also — 1st, Urane- 
clorita, (U. CI.) ; and 2d, Uraneclorituy, (U 2 . Cl 3 .) ; and also 
Uranesulphuritoq, or the sulphuret of urane. 

(ab.) Of Stibe we have— -lsb, Stibeoxitay, (Sb 2 . 3 ) ; 2d, 
Stibeoxitibi, (Sb- 2 .), or a duplication of it, Stibeoxitiquabi, 
(Sb 2 . 4 .) ; and 3d, Stibeoxitiquibi, (Sb 2 . O s .) ; and also — 1st, 
Stibecloritay, (Sb 2 . Cl 3 .) ; 2d, Stibecloritiquabi, (Sb 2 . Cl 4 .) ; 
and 3d, Stibeclorituquibi, (Sb 2 . C1. 5 ) ; and also Stibebromitoq, 
or the bromide of stibe; and also — Stibesulphuritay, (Sb 2 . 
S 3 .) ; 2d, Stibesulphuritiquabi, (Sb 2 . S 4 .) ; and 4, Stibesulphu- 
rituquibi, (Sb 2 - S 5 .). 

(ac.) Of Tantale we'have — 1st, Tantaleoxitabi, (Tan. 2 .) ; 
and 2d, Tantaleoxituter, (Tan. 3 ) ; and also ['antalefluori- 
toter, (Tan. F 3 .) ; and also Tantalecloritoter, (Tan. Cl 3 .) ; 
and also Tantalesulphuritoq, or the sulphuret of tantale. 

(ad.) Of Molide we have — 1st, Molideoxita, or Molidea, 
(Mo. O.) ; and 2d, Molideoxituter, (Mo. 3 ) ; and also — 
1st, Molideclorita, (Mo. CI.); and 2d, Molidecloritubi, (Mo. 
Cl 2 .) ; and also — Molidesulphuritabi, (Mo. S 8 .) ; 2d, Molide- 
sulphurititer, (Mo. S 3 ) : and 3d, Molidesulphurituqua, (Mo. 
S 4 .). 

(ae.) Of Tunge we have — 1st, Tungeoxitabi, (Tn. 2 .) ; 
2d, Tungeoxituquibi, (Tn 2 . O g .) ; and 3d, Tungeoxituter, (Tn. 
3 .) ; and also Tungecloritobi, (Tn. Cl 2 ) ; and also — 1st, 
Tungesulphuritobi, (Tn. S 2 .) ; and 2d, Tungesulphurituter, 
(Tn. S,.). 

(af.) Of Vanade we have — 1st, Vanadeoxita, or Vanadea, 
(V. O.) ; 2d, Vanadeoxitibi, (V. 2 .) ; and 3d, Vanadeoxitu- 



96 PHYSICS* 

ter, (V. 3 ) ; and also — 1st, Vanadecloritabi, (V. Cl 8 .) ; 
and 2d, Vanadeclorituter, (V. Cl 3 .) ; and also Vanadebromi* 
tobi, (V. Br 8 .) ; and also — 1st, Vanadesulphuritabi, (V. S 3 .) ; 
and 2d, Vanadesulphurituter, (V. S 3 .). 

(ag.) Of Crome we have here — 1st, Cromeoxitay, (Cr 2 . 
O s .) ; and 2d, Cromeoxatuter, (Or. 3 .); and also — 1st, Cro- 
mefluoritay, (Cr 2 . F 3 ) ; and 2d, Cromefluorituq, or the perfluo* 
rido of crome ; and also Cromecloritoy, (Cr 2 . S 3 .) ; and also 
— 1st, Cromesulphuritoy, (Cr 2 . S 3 .) ; and also Cromephospho- 
rito, (Cr. P.). 

(ah.) Of Stane we have — 1st, Staneoxita, or Stanea, (Stan. 
O.) ; 2d, Staneoxitiy, (Stan 2 8 .) ; and 3d, Staneoxitubi, 
(Stan. 2 .) ; and also — 1st, Staneclorita, (Stan. CI.) ; and 2d, 
Stanecloritubi, (Stan. CI 2 .) ; and also Staneiodita, (Stan. I.) ; 
and 2d, Staneioditubi, (Stan. I 2 .) ; and also — 1st, Stanesul- 
phurita, (Stan. S.) ; 2d, Stanesulphuritiy, (Stan 2 . S 3 .) ; and 
3d, Stanesulphuritibi, (Stan. S 2 .) ; and also Stanephosphori* 
toter, (Stan. P 3 ). 

(ai.) Of Cadme we have — Cadmeoxito, or Cadmeo, (Cd. 
O.); and also Cadmeclorito, (Cd. CI.) ; and also Cadmeiodi- 
to, (Cd. I.).; and also Cadmesulphurito, (Cd. S.). 

(aj.) Of Cobole we have — 1st, Coboleoxita, or Cobolea, 
(Co. 0.) ; 2d, Coboleoxitiquater, (Co 3 . 4 .) ; and 3d, Cobole- 
oxituy, (Co 2 . 3 .) ; and also Coboleclorito, (Co. CI.); and 
also — 1st, Cobolesulphurita, (Co. S.) ; and 2d, Cobole- 
sulphuritubi, (Co S 2 .) ; and also Cobolephosphoritoter, (Co. 

(ak.) Of Nicale we have — 1st, Nicaleoxita, or Nicalea, 
(Ni. O.) ; and 2d, Nicaleoxituy, (Ni 2 . 3 ) ; and also Nicale- 
clorito, (Ni. CI.); and also Nicalesulphuritonbi, (Ni 2 . S.) ; 
and also Nicalephosphoritobiter, (Ni 3 . P 2 .). 

(al.) Of/Zince we have — 1st, Zinceoxita, or Zincea, (Zn. 
O.) ; and 2d, Zinceoxituq, or the peroxide of zince ; and also 
Zinceflurito, (Zn. F.) ; and also Zinceclorito, (Zn. CI.); and 
also Zincebromito, (Zn. Br.) ; and also Zinceiodito, (Zn. I.) ; 
and also Zincesulphurito, (Zn. S.). 

(am.) Of Ferre we have — 1st, Ferreoxita, or Ferrea, (Fe. 
O.) which exists in compounds, but has never been, says 
Turner, insulated ; 2d, Ferreoxituy, (Fe 2 . 3 ) ; and 3d, Fer- 
reoxitiquater, (Fe 3 . 4 .), which is probably Ferreaferreuy, 
( (Fe. O.), (Fe 2 . 3 .)); and also — 1st, Ferrefluorita, (Fe. 
F.) ; and 2d, Ferrefluorituy, (Fe 2 F 3 ) ; and also — 1st, Fer- 
reclorita, (Fe. CI.) ; and 2d, Ferreclorituy, (Fe 2 . Cl 3 .) ; and 
also — 1st, Ferrebromita, (Fe. Br.); and 2d, Ferrebromituy, 
(Fe 2 . Br 3 .) ; and also — 1st. Ferreiodita, (Fe. I.) ; and 2d, 



CHEMISTRY — SYNTHETIC, 97 

Fcrreiodituy> (Fe 2 . I 3 .) ; and also Ferresulphuritanqua, (Fe 4 . 
S.) ; 2d, Ferresulphuritinbi, (Fe 2 . S.) ; 3d, Ferresulphuriti, 
(Fe. S.) ; 4th, Ferresulphuritisesi, (Fe 6 . S 7 .) ; 5th, Ferresul- 
phuritiy, (Fe 2 . S 3 ) ; and 6th, Ferresulphuritubi, (Fe. S 2 .); 
and also— 1st, Ferrecarboniteq, or steel; and 2d, Ferrecar- 
bonituq, or plumbagine ; and also Ferresilonileq, a doubtful 
combination of silone and ferre ; and also — 1st, Ferrephospho- 
ritanbi, (Fe 2 . P.); and 2d, Ferrephosphorituquater, (Fe 3 . P 4 .). 

{an.) Of Mangane we have— -1 st, Manganeoxita, or Man- 
ganea, (Man. O.) ; 2d, Manganeoxitiquater, (Man 3 . 4 .) ; 3d, 
Manganeoxitiy, (Man 2 . 3 ) ; 4th, Manganeoxitisequa, (Man 4 . 
7 .), or Varvacite ; 5th, Manganeoxitibi, (Man. 2 .) ; 6th, 
Manganeoxititer, (Man. 3 .) ; and 7th, Manganeoxitusebi, 
(Man 2 . 7 .) ; and also Manganefluoritosebi, (Man 2 . F 7 .) ; and 
also — 1st, Manganeclorita, (Man. CI.); and 2d, Manganeclo- 
ritusebi, (Man 2 . Cl 7 .) ; and also Manganesulphurito, (Man. 
S.). 

(ao.) Of the seven metals, Lanthane, Dydime, Pelope, 
Niobe, Parthene, Terbe, and Erbe,but little is known, though 
they may be safely presumed to combine as the ingredient 
viporectue with oxe. 

(ap.) Of Thorine we have — Thorineoxito, or Thorineo, 
(Th. O.) ; and also Thorineclorito, (Th. Ci.) ; and also Tho- 
rinephosphorito. (Th. P.). 

(aq.) Of Zircone we have — Zirconeoxitoy, (Zir 2 . 3 .), or 
Zirconeoy, and also Zirconesulphurito, (Zir. S.). 

(ar.) Of Itire we have — Itireoxito, (which read for Itere- 
oxito, page 41, line 5 from bottom) or Itireo, (It. O.) ; and 
also Itiresulphurito, (It. S.): and also Itirephosphorito, (It. 

(as.) Of Glucine we have — Glucineoxitoy, or Glucineoy, 
(G 2 . 3 ) ; and also Glucineclorito, (G. CI.) ; and also Glu- 
cinebromito, (G. Br.) ; and also Glucinesulphurito, (G. S.) ; 
and also Glucinephosphorito, (G. P.) ; and also Glucinear- 
senito, (G. As.). 

(at.) Of Argile we have — Argileoxitoy, or Argileoy, (Ar 2 . 
3 .) ; and also Argilecloritoy, (Ar 2 . Cl 3 .) ; and also Argile- 
sulphuritoy, (Ar 2 . S 3 .) ; and also Argileselenitoy, (Ar a . S 3 .) 
and also Argilephosphoritoy, (Ar 2 . P 3 ). 

(au.) Of Magnese we have — Magneseoxito, or Magneseo, 
(which read for Magneso, line 3, page 41), (Mag. O.) ; and 
also Magnesefluorito, (Mag. F.) ; and also Magneseclorito, 
(Mag. CI.) ; and also Magnesebromito, (Mag. Br.) ; and also 
Magneseiodito, (Mag. I.). 

(av.) Of Calce we HaYb — 1st. Calceorita or Caicea, (Ca. 

9 



98 PHYSICS. 

O.) ; and 2d, Calceoxitubi, (Ca. 2 .) ; and also Calcefluorito, 
(Ca. F.) ; and also Calceclorito, (Ca. CI.) ; and also Calce- 
bromito, (Ca. Br.) ; and also Calceiodito, (Ca. I.) ; and also — 
1st, Calcesulphurita, (C. S.) ; 2d, Calcesulphuritibi, (Ca. S 2 .) ; 
and 3d, Calcesulphurituquibi, (Ca 2 . S 5 .) ; and also Calcephos- 
phorito, (Ca. P.). 

(aw ) Of Stronte we have — 1st, Stronteoxita, or Strontea, 
(Str. O.) ; and 2d, Stronteoxitubi, (Str. 2 .) ; and also Stron- 
tefluoritOj (Str. F.) ; and also Stronteclorito, (Str. CI.) ; and 
also Stronteiodito, (Str. I.) ; and also Strontesulphurito, (Str. 
S). 

(ax.) Of Bare we have — 1st, Bareoxita, or Barea, (Ba. O) ; 
and 2d, Bareoxitubi, (Ba. 2 .) ; and also Barefluorito, (Ba. 
F.) ; and also Bareclorito, (Ba. CI.) ; and also Barebromito, 
(Ba. Br.) ; and also Bareiodito, (Ba. I.) ; and also Baresul- 
phurito, (Ba. S.). 

(ay.) Of Lithe we have — Litheoxito, or Litheo, (L. O.) ; 
and also Lithefluorito, (L. F.) ; and also Lithebromito, (L. 
Br.) ; and also Litheiodito, (L. I.). 

(az.) Of Sode we have — 1st, Sodeoxita, (which read for 
Sedeoxita, line 16 from bottom, page 41) or Sodea, (So. O.) ; 
and 2d, Sodeoxituy, (So 2 . 3 .) ; and also Sodefluorito, (So. 
F.) ; and also Sodeclorito, (So. CI.) ; and also Sodebromito, 
(So. Br.) ; and also Sodeiodito, (So. I.) ; and also Sodesul- 
phurito, (So. S.). 

(a<5f.) Of Cale we have — 1st, Caleoxita, or Calea, (Cal. 
O.) ; and 2d, Caleoxituter, (Cal. O?.) ; and also Calefluorito, 
(Cal. F.) ; and also Caleclorito, (Cal. CI.) ; and also Cale- 
bromito, (Cal. Br.); and also Caleiodito, (Cal. I.); and also 
— 1st, Calesulphurita, (Cal. S.) ; 2d, Calesulphuritibi, (Cal. 
S 2 .) ; 3d, Calesulphnrititer, (Cal. S 3 .) ; 4th, Calesulphuriti- 
qua, (Cal. S 4 .) ; and 5th, Calesulphurituqui, (Cal. S 5 .) ; and 
also Calecarbonitoq, or the carburet of cale ; and also Cale- 
selenitoq, or the selenuret of cale ; and also Calephosphori- 
toq, or the phosphuret of cale ; and also Calehigitoq, little 
known. 

Cyane (k) enters into combination like a hylaple, and thus 
we have Aquacyaneoxato, (Aq. Cy. O.), simple, duple and 
triple, or (Aq. Cy. O.), (Aq 8 . Cy 2 . 2 .), and (Aq 3 . Cy 3 . 3 .), or 
Cyanic Fulminic and Cyanuric acids ; and also Cyaneclorito, 
(Cy. CI.) ; and also Cyanebromito, (Cy. Br.) ; and also Cy- 
aneiodito, (Cy. I.) ; and also Cyanesulphuritobi, (Cy. S 2 .). 

It becomes renorectue to hige and some of the metals, and 
thus we have Higecyanato, or Prusic acid, where the combi- 
nation, like that of hige and clore, is without condensation of 



CHEMISTRY — SYNTHETIC. 99 

either ingredient. We have also Calecyanito, (Cal. Cy.), 
and Ferrecyanataterse, or Prusian Blue, ( (Fe r Cy 3 .), or (F 4 . 
(3 Fe. Cy 3 .) )— Graham ; and we seem to have also, Ferre- 
cyanatiferrecyanatiy, ( (Fe. Cy.) (Fe 2 . Cy 3 .) ). 

Fluor forms but few connections, and is always renorectue 
when it combines at all, and apparently more energetically 
so than oxe is. The oxefluorides spoken of in the books con- 
sist of a Beoxite combined with a Befluorite, and 'it is not 
easy for me to decide, from the datues before me, which is 
the ingredient renorectue there. 

(102.) The substances of which we have been speaking 
above will combine, amid the proper circumstances, still fur- 
ther together ; and thus we have what are called Compound 
Salts, a bad term for them, however, as they seldom bear 
much analogy to common table salt which gave rise to it. 
Thus we have Caleasulphuruter, ( (Cal. O.), (S. 3 .) ) ; and 
Caleasulphurutercoy, which means sulphuruter (co.) com- 
bined (y) 3 to 2 with calea ; thus, ( (Cal. 0.) 2 (S. 3 .) 3 ) ; and 
furthermore we have double salts, as Caleasulphuruter-Argi- 
leoysulphuruter, ( ((Cal. O.), (S. 3 .)), ((Ar 2 . 3 .) (S. 3 .)) ), 
which in this case is alumine or alum, so called ; and further- 
more still we have to observe here that Calea, for example, 
will take one, three, or five equivalents of aqua as an ingre- 
dient renorectue, and thus become Caleaaqua, Caleaaquater, 
or Caleaaquaqui, and then a quantity of water, as the ingre- 
dient viporectue will dissolve this compound ; and another 
quantity of it will dilute that solution ; so that common lixivy, 
or lye from ashes, is Aquaaquacaleaaquaqui. And in the 
same way we have Aquaamoniaaquaq, or amoniated water, 
&c. 

(103.) The term Inerte is convenient for expressing the 
essential thing which has inertness or inertia ; and this lat- 
ter one we shall use for expressing the aggregate inertes of 
any mass, simple or compound, of materia. 

A particle of hige, for example, may be represented thus, 
v(vir)r, where v means vips, r reno, and i a particle of inerte, 
and where the v and r within the parenthesis indicate the 
ethere which is inseparable from that inerte, while those 
without them denote the specific calore which belongs to this 
hige considered as such. And so v(vz'r)r, the i being Italic, 
will express a particle of oxe; but remember the t is greater 
or heavier, and possibly more highly colored, here than it is 
in the other case, and therefore we shall have to substitute 
the word inertia for inertes when we speak generally of the 
substantial part of materia. 



100 PHYSICS. 

A particle of aqua may be represented thus : v(vH.i AO.r)r, 
the reversed Roman x meaning that the hige retains but little 
of its reno, and the reversed Roman a that the oxe retains 
but little of its vipo in such a connection. 

Calceaaqua, or slaked lime, may be expressed thus : v(Cal.- 
-t < aqua)r, the horizontal *t meaning that the calea sur- 
renders but half of an equivalent of reno, and the horizontal 
< that the aqua surrenders but half of an equivalent of vipo 
in any such connection, where duple compounds become a 
quadruple one. And in case of octuple ones, sucli as Calea- 
suIphuruter-Argileoysulphuruter, the proximate constituents 
surrender, in coming together, probably about one-fourth of an 
equivalent of their disposable ethere ; and hence we perceive 
the reason why the more complicated a substance is, the more 
readily it separates into simpler portions. 

Zincea may be represented thus, v(VZn.r < Or)r, the capital 
V meaning that the zince acquires in this case vipo in addi- 
tion to its natural share of that kind of ethere, and the upright 
Roman r at its right, that it retains at the same time its natu- 
ral share of reno. 

Higeclorato may be expressed thus : v(vH, n vCl.R)r, the 
capital Roman R meaning that the Clore has taken from the 
hige a quantity of reno in addition to its natural share of that 
kind of ethere ; and thus the aggregate volume of the two 
gasses remains the same, for the clore is .just as much ex- 
panded as the hige is contracted. 

CHIMISTRY BION1C. 

(104.) To chimistry bionic (47) we have now some atten- 
tion to give. And here let us observe, that, in the bionic sys- 
tema, chimical analyse has found a specimen or quantity 
greater or less in proportion to the whole mass of bionic ma- 
teria so analysed, of nineteen, and hitherto of only nineteen, 
of the sixty-one thus far discovered hylaples ; and the same 
are as follows, that is to say : Of the aereaples, (63) a speci- 
men of the whole five that are known is found there, namely, 
hige, niter, oxe, fluor, and clore ; of the blaceaples, (62) six 
in number, appear in greater or less quantities there ; phos- 
phor, sulphur, carbone, brome, iode, and silone ; of the alca- 
lifiente metals, (6 1 ) two are there, cale and sode ; of the alca- 
lisemiiiente ones, (60) two, magnese and calce ; of the alca- 
liulefientes, (59) argile only has been there detected ; of the 
common fragile metals, (56) mangane alone appears there, 
and of the common ductile ones, ferre and cuper are both 



CHEMISTRY — BIONIC. 101 

found occasionally there. The whole of these hylaples never 
appear, however, in any one and the same bione ; and they 
are received into vegetals, and thence into animals, not in 
their simple state, but in a condition compounded more or less 
together. And here let it be added that iode and brome are 
not found in biones above the mere lowest of them, such as 
the algas or seaweeds ; and yet, as those algas are eaten by 
herbivorant animals that happen to have access to them, I 
perceive not why the two last mentioned hylaples should not 
find their way, as well as the other ones, into the systema of 
such eaters. 

The skeleton of all vegetation is carbone, and the same is 
combined with aqua, which consists, remember, of hige and 
oxe ; and as a general rule these two last mentioned hylaples 
are in the right proportion there for the constitution of water ; 
the analyse of straw, and the bark of hemp and flax, shows, 
says Graham, a deficiency there of oxe — thus : (C 35 . H^. 
O 20 .). The proportion in question appears also, according to 
the books before me, in fecula, mucilage, and sacchare, that 
are found naturally existing within or exuding from vegetals, 
and likewise in sacchare, contained in the milk of the mazone 
animals. Manna appears to be oxited sacchare, and does 
not, though sweet, undergo the alcoholic fermentation ; and 
vegetable oils and resins, and animal fats, are substantially 
hige and carbone. 

Cale enters more or less abundantly into most vegetation, 
which finds it properly prepared for the purpose ; and where 
it does not appear in the analyse of a plant, sode generally 
does so. Some vegetales, the Salsolas for example, seem 
not to accept of cale at all in their food ; and hence they grow 
only where sodeclorito is plenty ; and thence they are de- 
nominated Marine plants. But many, and perhaps all of the 
forest trees, properly so called, of any climate, and possibly 
all vegetals whatever, which receive cale while growing 
within the interior parts of any country, may be found to 
contain more or less soda while living within the vicinity of 
any considerable quantity of salt water. Sodeclorito is there 
taken up in the ordinary evaporation which attends all water 
that is exposed to our atmosphere ; and thence it descends 
upon the adjacent lands, and so vegetation obtains it. 

Calce in the proper combination enters most vegetals, and 
is generally supposed, if not actually proved, not only to per- 
form its own functions there, but to become now and then to 
a greater or less extent, a substitute for cale or sode within 
them. 

9* 



102 PHYSICS. 

(105.) Vegetals contain, among other ingredients, celea- 
silice, caleasulphuruter, and caleaphosphoruquicoter, or ter- 
phosphate of lime ; and the combustion of them separates 
their calea from all its connections there, and leaves it in the 
remaining ashes. Pour upon these ashes water — and hot is 
better for this purpose than cold water is — and allow it to 
remain a few hours, and then let it run from an orifice at or 
near the bottom of the vessel where said ashes are put, and 
it will bring away in solution calea or sodea, and perhaps 
both of them mixed together ; and if the quantity of ashes is 
large in this case, and all the alcaly within them intended to 
be thus obtained, this process of Leaching, so called, should be 
continued for some days. Evaporate the water of this lixivy, 
or ley, which has thus run from the ashes in question, and 
you will have left the calea or sodea, and it may be a mixture 
of both of them, and especially if your ashes are the remains 
of burnt vegetable materia that had grown in the vicinity of 
salt water. From the calceaphosphoruquicoter of this vegeta- 
ble materia, two equivalents of the aquaphosphoruqui have 
been driven during its combustion, leaving calceaphosphoruqui 
which is quite insoluble, and hence leached ashes have not 
lost all their value as a manure. This calceaphosphoruqui 
will become, in nature's great laboratory, calceaphosphoruqui- 
coter again, which is very soluble when properly combined 
with water, and will be thus taken up by other vegetation 
that may happen to have access to it ; and remember that 
nothing enters the roots of vegetation without being pre- 
viously dissolved in water; and nothing their foliage except 
in the gaseous condition. And these remarks are calculated 
to lead us to the smbject of agriculture, the theory of which 
belongs here, though its practical operations will find a more 
appropriate place under the general head of mechanics. 
From those analyses by means of which we arrived at our 
knowledge of the sixty-one discovered hylaples, we must be 
presumed to have some information respecting the constitu- 
ents of soils in which vegetals grow. The greatest deside- 
rate in the food of plants will be found, as I should suppose, 
to be phosphor, as that substance is rather scarce than other- 
wise in the crust of the earth ; and hence the value of bones 
which consist mostly of calceaphosphoruqui, as a manure, 
though no one vegetal requires much of it. And the next ar- 
ticle of sustenance which they obtain with difficulty, except 
in volcanic regions, is, probably, sulphur ; for even this sub- 
stance is not plenty everywhere ; and the next in this order, 
I think to be niter in the proper combination, amoniasulphu- 



CHEMISTRY— felONIC 103 

ruter, and amonianiteruqui, and possibly aquaamoniaaqua. It 
is true that niter is abundant in our atmosphere, but vegeta- 
tion does not receive it as it there exists. And next, per- 
haps, clore and fluor, for the latter is not plenty any where ; 
nor is even the former away from the sea ; and then will 
come, undoubtedly, cale, sode, calce, and magnese, &c, 
though but little of magnese or of fluor is found in any one 
bione ; and soils that abound in magnese are barren from the 
annoyance, probably, which too much of it occasions to vege- 
tation there. x\nalyse detects, says Turner, a small quantity 
of calcefluorito, as well as of calceasulphuruter, and of argi- 
leoy, and magneseo, in the bones of animals ; and the same 
must have existed in the vegetals upon which those animals 
fed ; and yet some of these last mentioned substances in the 
proper combination may be considered rather, perhaps, as 
condiments in the food of such plants than as a substantial 
part of it. The remaining eight hylaples, hige,oxe, carbone, 
silone, argile, mangane, ferre, and cuper, vegetation will 
naturally obtain, more or less readily, almost any where ; and 
nevertheless, it should not be overlooked here that arid regions 
of country require artificial irrigation, or a due supply of oxe 
and hige in the right combination for the production of vege- 
tals ; and, upon veryargileoyous soils, sand should be put, while 
upon sandy ones clay should be spread, and then moisture 
will be retained longer than otherwise by the one, and ena- 
bled to leave the other piece of ground. Vegetation obtains 
its carbone from the carboneoxatubi which constitutes about 
ToVo' * n measure, of our atmosphere, and which it inhales 
into its apparatue respiratory or foliage. The atmosphere 
must be heated, and thus made renous, before it will readily 
surrender its carboneoxatubi to plants. While the sunshines 
hot upon vegetals, and upon the air around them, this carbo- 
neoxatubi, leaving its connection with our atmosphere, is 
drawn by its reno in pursuit of vipo into the upper surface of 
the foliage of vegetals, while water, holding in solution vari- 
ous saline substances, among which are amoniasulphuruter, 
caleasilice, caleasulphuruter, combined sometimes as alumine 
or alum, with argileoysulphuruter sodeasulphuruter, magne- 
seosulphuruter, calceasulphuruter, calceacarboneubi, calce- 
fluorito, calceaphosphoruquicote-\ manganeasulphuruter, fer- 
reasulphuruter, and cuperistilphuruter, &c, &c, is drawn by 
its vipo in pursuit of reno into their roots ; and taking a por- 
tion of the mucilage and sacchare already there along with 
itself, this water is drawn still upward by the same vipo just 
mentioned, in pursuit of the reno of the carboneoxatubi that 



104 PHYSICS. 

is entering their apparatue respiratory, as mentioned abore ; 
and now this aqua furnishes vipo, which enables one equiva- 
lent of the oxe in our carboneoxatubi to escape at the under 
surface of the foliage in question ; and hereupon the other 
equivalent of oxe in the said carboneoxatubi, being unable to 
remain there alone, takes vipo from the same carbone with 
which it had been so connected, and thus disappears as the 
first one did. The carbone and aqua, of which we are speak- 
ing, are now obliged to combine together, and thus become 
what we shall here denominate, for the moment at least, Car- 
boneaquaq, though it is not purely so, for it contains the saline 
substance of which we have spoken above ; and bear in mind 
that our carbone, having surrendered two equivalents of reno 
and one of vipo since it was vaporous, must be here conside- 
rably dense, and more so, perhaps, than is common charcoal. 
And as it would require two equivalents of aqua to yield vipo 
enough to liberate an equivalent of oxe in this case, I con- 
elude that our compound is momentarily, in the first instance, 
Carboneaquabi, though it seems not to be permanently so. 
The carbone is probably not sufficiently vipous to hold, in 
the state renorectue, all this aqua. A portion of it is doubt- 
less exhaled, as vapor from the under side of the foliage 
where it so is, while another portion of it combines, I suspect, 
in the state viporectue with our compound, and thus the latter 
must be Aquacarboneaquaq, or an aqueous solution of car- 
boneaquaq, a kind of mucilaginous sacchare, which may be 
here named Cambiue, or, in other words, vegetable arterial 
blood, and which is drawn by its reno in pursuit of vipo toward 
the roots of our plant, and of course within it. The redun- 
dant reno of this cambiue leaves portions of the same deposi- 
ted along its course, and thus passes off to be neutralized 
with vipo, in the regions of space ; and so the interior por- 
tion of any vegetal is cooler than is the atmosphere around it, 
though in the hybernating, or winter season, the same will 
be warmer than such atmosphere is. 

(106.) Experimenters upon vegetable nutrition find niter 
in the receiver where their plant, or branch of one thus expe- 
rimented upon, has been placed during the operation here in- 
dicated ; and they are apt to think that such niter comes from 
their plant ; but this cannot be, for if the plant in question is 
not receiving any niter, it cannot exhale any, unless it is un- 
dergoing decomposition, during this process ; and such the 
experimenters themselves are not ready to admit to be the 
case in regard to it. They are as sure as I am that they 
have before them a genuine example of vegetable nutrition 



CHEMISTRY BIONIC. 



105 



and growth. And the fact is, this niter comes from the at- 
mosphere around them, and is drawn by its vipo through, not 
only water, but even through mercure, in which the receiver 
above mentioned may be standing, and thus under the edge of 
that receiver up to the oxe exhaled by the plant within it. And 
forget not here that gases generally, when brought into juxta- 
position, one with another of them, are drawn, each by its 
regente ethere, more or less rapidly, into the other ; and thus 
there is a kind of chimical union, even among the different 
gases of which our atmosphere consists. The heavier one 
is made to ascend, while the lighter one descends, in the ho- 
mogene mass so formed. 

(107.) The ascending axe, or upper portion of a plant, is 
drawn upward by its vipo in pursuit of the reno of the car- 
boneoxatubi in the atmosphere around it, and the descending 
c ic, or roots, are drawn downward or horizontally beneath the 
earth's surface by their reno, in pursuit of the vipo of the water 
there. Vegetals are colorless and succulent in dark places 
from want of carbone ; and it is this substance which they 
seek, and not light, while tending toward the latter, for there 
it is that the sun's rays liberate carboneoxatubi from its con- 
nection with our atmosphere; and certainly they cannot act 
wiere they are not, even by any remote secondary reflection. 
A id the reason why the plumule of a semine made to germi- 
nate upon the periphery of a rotating wheel will tend, as it is 
found to do, toward the axe of such wheel, is because in front 
of that periphery there is a vacue, and, consequently, no car- 
boneoxatubi ; and the reason why the radicle of that semine 
will tend outwardly from the said axe, is because it finds 
mere vipo there than elsewhere. The moisture that is put 
with this semine, in order to enable it to sprout, evaporates, 
and that vapor is thrown by the rotation of the wheel in 
question outwardly, and there takes reno, leaving vipo which 
our radicle seeks. 

During the night time water ascends, as usual, within vege- 
tation ; and finding no carboneoxatubi inhaled, attempts to 
combine with the solution of carboneaquaq already there; 
and, in doing so, it surrenders vipo, which enables some of 
the carbone to leave its connection and combine with oxe 
from the atmosphere around it, and thus to escape ; and as 
this water remains in the plant for a time at least, the latter is 
more succulent, and perhaps larger in the morning than it 
will be the following evening, when it will have had its sup- 
ply of carbone. 

The arterial blood, or cambiue specified above, of vegetals 



106 



PHYSICS 



is drawn down and within the plant where it is found, and 
there becomes, in the first instance, mere cellular tissue, or 
Cellulosa, which is stated by Graham to be, and especially in 
one case of Payen's analyse, (C 12 . Aq 10 .), or isomerie with 
fecula. The cells here indicated are filled, and especially in 
the higher vegetation, with a less dense substance, called by 
Payen the true lignue, and the whole together is put by Gra- 
ham at (C 12 . Aq 8 .). 

(108.) The vegetable materia above spoken of is taken 
into the stomach, from whence an extract or preparation from 
it is thrown into the blood of an animal, and this blood is 
drawn by its reno to his apparatue respiratory, and there 
meets oxe drawn thither by its vipo from the atmosphere 
around him. An equivalent of this oxe yields an equivalent 
of vipo to an equivalent of carbone in the blood just men- 
tioned, and thus attempts to combine with that carbone. 
Another equivalent of oxe comes up, and both of them to- 
gether do so, giving rise in that way to carboneoxatubi ; this 
last equivalent of oxe having furnished the vipo which sepa- 
rated the aqua from that carbone. And now this aqua seizes 
reno as best it can from what is around it, and is thus ex- 
panded to vapor, and exhaled along with the carboneoxatubi 
of which we have spoken. The blood becomes now quite 
vipous, and is drawn by its vipo to the heart, causing that 
organ to pulsate, and thence to the extremities of the sys- 
tema in which it so is, in pursuit of the reno of the space 
around it. A portion of reno enters now our blood, and draws 
it back to the heart, causing it to pulsate as before, and 
thence to the apparatue respiratory above mentioned. And 
thus we perceive why his apparatue respiratory should be, 
as it actually is, the coldest, while his extremities are the 
warmest part of an animal ; and also why it is that respira- 
tion and food are necessary for keeping his extremities 
warm ; and furthermore, we perceive why it is that animals 
of all grades, if healthy and active, are warmer than is the 
mediue around them. 

(109.) Put arterial blood into carboneoxatubi, and one 
equivalent of the oxe in the latter will take vipo from the 
water which will be likely to be found there, and thus ascend 
to the atmosphere around it. The other equivalent of the oxe 
in this carboneoxatubi, being unable to remain there alone, 
takes vipo from the carbone with which it had been con- 
nected, and rises as the first one did, leaving this carbone 
to combine with our renorectue aqua, thus giving rise to car- 
boneaquabi there ; and so our arterial becomes converted 
into venous blood. 



CHEMISTRY BI0NIC 107 

Put venous blood into hige, and you will have a specimen 
of the expedients to which nature resorts in case of neces- 
sity. She wishes to remove from this blood a portion of 
carboneaquabi ; and behold how ingeniously and dexterously 
she does so by means of hige alone, and without any oxe ! 
A portion of our hige attempts to associate itself with that of 
the aqua in a quantity of the carboneaquabi that is found in 
the blood before us ; and in doing so it surrenders one equi- 
valent, of reno and a half one of vipo, and this latter the car- 
bone of the carboneaquabi in question seizes, though it is but 
half enough to enable it to carry off the oxe of the water in 
our carboneaquabi. Another half equivalent then it obtains 
as best it can, and thus carries off that oxe, leaving half of an 
equivalent of reno, which, added to the whole one our hige 
surrendered, makes three half equivalents that we keep for 
the moment in reserve. And now what have we here be- 
fore us ? We have three equivalents of hige, each of which 
wants an equivalent of reno, and a half one of vipo ; or, in 
other words, the difference betwixt their respective vipos and 
renos is only half an equivalent, or three halves in the whole, 
which we have in reserve. The other half equivalent of vipo 
and reno they can supply to theirselves from the calore of 
space, and thus ascend to the atmosphere above and around 
them. And the reader should not forget here that in these 
chimical changes we are to account for the ethere as well as 
for the materia concerned. Hige, or any other substance 
wanting half of an equivalent of each of the constituents of 
its natural calore, is much condensed to be sure, but it is 
still perfect materia of its kind, and if permitted to do so, it 
can expand to its ordinary dimensions by decomposing a por- 
tion of the calore of space, and taking to itself the whole of 
one of the constituents of that calore, and as much of the 
other as it needs ; and what will thus remain of this other 
constituent will be always too small in quantity for occasion- 
ing disturbance. 

(110.) And thus we perceive that ethere is the life of 
biones ; and that of what takes place in the nutrition of vege- 
tals, the converse does so in that of animals. Vipo controls 
the arterial, and reno the venous blood of animals. Reno 
controls the arterial, and vipo the venous blood of vegetals. 
Animals become warmer, vegetals colder, by nutrition. In 
the higher, and probably in all vegetals, the arteries are exte- 
rior ; in the higher, and probably in all animals, interior to their 
veins. Vegetals tend upward — animals downward — for the 
most substantial part of their sustenance. Vegetals receive 



108 PHYSICS. 

this part into their apparatue respiratory— animals into theirs 
alimentary. Vegetals inhale carboneoxatubi, and exhale 
oxe ; animals inhale oxe, and exhale carboneoxatubi. Vege- 
tals are stationary and senseless ; animals are sensitive and 
locomotive. 

(111.) Under this general head of chimistry bionic will 
come, very obviously, much of the theoretic part of painting, 
bleaching, dying, printing, and staining ; the cleansing, full- 
ing, and dressing of cloth, the brewing of malted liquors, the 
distillery of alcohol, the obtaining and purifying of sugar, 
the preparation of medicines for counteracting diseases, and 
even of ordinary cooking, and preparation of food for the 
human stomach, &c, &c. ; and yet these subjects may be 
more advantageously disposed of under the general head of 
mechanics perhaps than here. 

(112.) The rationeality of Fermentation is a great enigma, 
of which no solution that has ever been heretofore given is 
generally satisfactory. Lignue, says Graham, on the autho- 
rity of Payen, consists of two parts : 1st, Cellulosa, or fecula, 
which he puts at (C 12 . Aq 10 .) ; and 2d, a less dense sub- 
stance, the precise constitution of which is not ascertained, 
within the cells here indicated ; and both together are con- 
sidered as (C 12 . Aq 8 .) ; but this proportion seems not to be 
the same for ail wood ; and in the bark of hemp and flax, and 
also in straw, which, when properly prepared, are all con- 
sidered as lignuous liber, analyse shows, according to Gra- 
ham, more equivalents of hige than of oxe. Let us suppose 
something like this : the proper lignue of Payen to be (C 12 . 
Aq 7 .) ; fecula to be (Aq 3 . C 12 . Aq 7 .) ; arid mucilage to be 
(Aq 4 . C 12 . Aq 7 .) 

Put lignuous fiber into dilute aquasulphuruter, and apply 
heat to the same, and we shall have what may be called the 
saccharine fermentation. Three equivalents of the water 
which belongs to this aquasulphuruter will leave it, and com- 
bine, as ingredients, viporectue with what Payen calls the 
proper wood, as above mentioned, and convert it to fecula, thus, 
(Aq 3 . C l2 . Aq 7 ), and the same will mingle with that which 
was previously so in the mass of wood upon which we are 
operating; the aquasulphuruter supplying itself at the same 
time with other water from that in which it is diluted ; con- 
tinue the heat, and one equivalent of water from that in which 
the aquasulphuruter in question is diluted will combine in 
the state renorectue with our fecula, and then we shall have 
(Aq 3 . C 12 . Aq 8 .) ; meantime two or three equivalents from 
the aquasulphuruter before us will combine in the state vipo- 



CHEMISTRY— BIONIC. 109 

rectue with our mass, and render it about (Aq G . C 12 . Aq 8 .), 
or grape sugar. Calling refined sugar (Aq 3 . C 12 . Aq 8 .), and 
gum (Aq 4 . C 12 . Aq 7 .), we shall perceive why, though mate- 
rially isomeric, they differ so widely in their general charac- 
ters from each other. And in a similar manner may be all 
chimical differences, where there is material isomerism, ex- 
plained. 

Caramel is put at (C 12 . Aq 9 .), and is probably (Aq. C 12 . 
Aq 8 .). Manna contains more equivalents of oxe than of hige, 
and appears to be oxited sacchare, and does not, though 
sweet, undergo the alcoholic fermentation. The books speak 
of oxited, or rather oxated, or acid cane sugar, which seemB 
not to be fermentable. The flour of any grain has a flavor 
and taste somewhat variant from that of the unbroken or 
coarsely broken kernels of which such flour is made ; and 
here may be possibly an ethereal change, though probably 
nothing more than a simple evaporation or absorption of 
water. The interior of any succulent fruit, as the apple, 
grows darker in color when exposed to our atmosphere, 
which is probably the mere effect of simple evaporation. In 
short, such cases do not seem to require explanation. 

Any sweet substance that consists of carbone and water, 
and this is perhaps the. proper definition of sacchare, dis- 
solved in water, may be considered, we assume, as (Aq 4 . 
C 12 . Aq 8 .) ; and such the fecula of what is called Dough or 
wort, &c, first becomes ; and then it is ready for the alco- 
holic fermentation. And now a portion of the carbone in a 
particle of it will be likely to acquire vipo from what is 
around it, and thus to combine with two equivalents of the 
oxe which is already renorectue in that same sacchare, thus 
giving rise to carboneoxatubi ; and so our sacchare becomes 
resolved into two new substances, the one being carboneoxa- 
tubi, four portions, or about 49 per cent, of the sugar fer- 
mented, which always escapes; and the other alcohol, (Aq 2 . 
C 4 . H 4 .), two portions, or about 51 per cent, of that sugar 
which escapes in vapor from bread while baking, but never 
much from beer, wine, cider, &c. Eventually this alcoholic 
fermentation ceases. Now put some of this fermented dough, 
or unbaked bread, or some of the settlings or bottom portion 
of this beer, which is generally termed yeast, into wort or 
dough where no such fermentation has taken place, and there- 
upon such a one will soon commence, and first in the yeast 
which has been thus introduced, and then in the substance 
itself, into which that yeast is so put ; and this fermentation 
will be rapid and sure, while the first one which gave rise to 

10 



110 



PHYSICS. 



our yeast was rather accidental than otherwise. And hence, 
to originate yeast is seldom very easy ; and of course it is 
always taken, when it can be conveniently had, from a pre- 
vious fermentation. 

Dilute alcohol, and suppose it to be (Aq 2 - C 4 . H 4 .), in 
water, and we shall have what is called the acetic fermenta- 
tion, whether our liquid is beer, cider, wine, or toddy, &c. 
Here are four equivalents of hige in the state viporectue, and 
consequently ready to receive any proper renorectue sub- 
stance. Accordingly, four equivalents of water are decom- 
posed, the oxe of them deserting its hige and combining with 
the four equivalents just mentioned of the same thing. And 
this hige so deserted by its oxe obtains reno as best it can 
and thus disappears. In doing so, however, it renders the 
water there viporectue, so that one equivalent of the latter 
combines in that state with our compound, while one of the 
four equivalents of the Water just formed, as above specified 
in the state renorectue, is obliged to leave this compound, the 
carbone there not being sufficiently vipous to hold it, and thus 
we have for Acetue, (Aq 3 . C 4 . Aq 3 .). These three viporec- 
tue equivalents of water may be driven off by heat, and then 
for concentrated acetue we shall have (C 4 . Aq 3 ). Here then 
is a draught-upon the water in question for three equivalents 
of reno ; and hence the reason that the acetic fermentation 
requires a warm mediue. Bear in mind that the equivalent 
of water which combines in the state viporectue with our 
compound, surrenders half of an equivalent of reno in doing 
so, and that the equivalent of water which is obliged to leave 
this compound, as above stated, takes half of an equivalent of 
vipo, which liberates half a one of reno in doing so, and thus 
the whole of the reno which the water is obliged to supply 
in this case is only three equivalents of it— a large quantity, 
however, for every one of acetue thus formed. 

Fill your vessel with fermented liquor, and stop it tight, 
and that liquor will not be likely to turn sour. If the hige 
cannot escape it will not permit its oxe to go to the alcohol 
in this case. 

The Mother, so called, of vinegar is a compound homo- 
gene, doubtless, of alcohol, acetue and mucilage, &c, and 
acts in the acetic, something as yeast does in the alcoholic 
fermentation ; and remarks analogous to these may be pro- 
perly made, undoubtedly, respecting the putrid one, and thus 
we unravel that hitherto puzzle of puzzles— fermentation in 
general. 



CHEMISTRY MINICOLOGIC. Ill 



CHIMISTRY MINICOLOGIC. 

(113.) To chimistry minicologic, usually called mineralo- 
gy, we shall now advert. And here we must be supposed to 
be pa/tially, at least, acquainted with the composition of the 
substances of which we are to speak ; for how else could we 
arrive at our knowledge of the sixty-one ascertained hyla- 
ples ? We shall now give our attention, first; to the atmos- 
phere above and around us, and shall repeat something re- 
specting it, perhaps, that we are supposed to be already 
aware of. It consists of about 3,53 by weight, or of 4 in 
bulk, of niter to one of oxe ; and these two aereaples are 
held together by their regente etheres, the niter being the in- 
gredient viporectue, and the oxe the one renorectue, in the 
compound thus arising. So constituted, this mass, as the 
ingredient viporectue, dissolves, or takes up portions of a 
given or limited extent, and what is by no means a solitary 
peculiarity in nature, more at a low than at a high temperature, 
of carboneoxatubi, which is the ingredient renorectue in the 
resulting compound. If there is more of this carboneoxatubi 
ii\ any given locality than can be so dissolved, h remains a 
mass by itself, and will be likely to occasion the death of 
any animale that happens to be confined for any considerable 
time therein. This triple compound of niter, oxe and car- 
boneoxatubi, dissolves, in turn to an extent depending upon its 
temperature and density, aqueous vapor, which arises from 
the water beneath it, and which becomes the ingredient reno- 
rectue there, while the triple compound above mentioned is 
the one viporectue in the whole mass thus constituted, which, 
is doubtless homogene, a circumstance that will aid us very 
much in explaining the rationeality of storms when we shall 
have come to the subject! of aerologia, as well as that of 
bionic respiration within it. And furthermore, we add here, 
that this quadruple compound of which we are speaking is 
properly the atmosphere in which the pulmoneated and tra- 
cheated animales respire, and whore the most of them, the 
whales being here excepted, pass their existence. Its gra- 
vity, calling water 1, is about 0,0012. 

2d. Water consists of eight parts by weight, or of half of 
one in bulk, of oxe to one of hige, and constitutes the mediue 
where the branchiated animals respire and mostly reside. 
We have heretofore said that it dissolves oxe, niter, and car- 
boneoxatubi, though not in the same proportion as they exist 
in our atmosphere, a circumstance that will aid us in biology, 
which will be a sub-department of bionologia. 



112 PHYSICS. 

3d. Siloneoter, or silice, is the most common substance 
that we find in the crust of the earth. It differs widely from 
what we have heretofore (50) described as the alcaliulas or 
proper earths, and combines with them as the real acids do. 
In short it is a besate. With but little modification it becomes 
common quartz, tabular quartz, flintstone, hornstone, siliceous 
slate, jasper, carnelian stone, amethyst, opal, agate, calce- 
dony, onyce, &c, while common rock crystal may be con- 
sidered as a fair specimen of it ; and there its form is hexa- 
heder, while it is terminated by a pyramidal summit. Its 
gravity is 2,7. 

4th. Felspar is another very common minico around us ; 
and we find many varieties, and perhaps we may say species 
of it ; and it may be considered as a compound of Argileoy- 
silice and calceasilice, and sometimes of caleasilice. Its 
crystals are rombic, and its gravity is 2,6 ; and decomposed 
it becomes caolin or porcelain clay. 

5th. There are many substances found in the crust of the 
earth that are denominated Mica. At present, however, I 
shall speak of one by that name, which may be considered as 
a compound of argileoysilice, and caleasilice, and ferreasilice. 
Its crystals are lamellar and transparent, and its gravity is 
nearly 3. And in masses it becomes rock which is abundant 
in many places. And these three minicoes, quartz, felspar 
and mica, which may be called Lithaples, or simple rocks, 
being cemented together, constitute granite, the lowest rock 
known in the earth, and the same may be termed a Lithople, 
or compound rock, in contradistinction to the lithaples or sim- 
ple ones. 

6th. Augite is another common minico in the crust of the 
earth, and is generally hard and tough, and its gravity is 
nearly 3 ; and it may be considered as a compound of 
magneseosilice, calceasilice, and sometimes of argileoysilice. 
There are many species of it, and their colors vary from 
white, gray, green, and brown, to black. One of these spe- 
cies is called hornblend, and it takes the place, occasionally, 
of mica in granite, and then the lithople so constituted is de- 
nominated Sienite, because the same kind of rock abounds at 
Siena in upper Egypt. One variety of this hornblend is 
called Basalt, and seems to have been remelted, since it was 
proper hornblend ; and of this basalt there is a sub-variety, 
which is called Greenstone, and which contains small particles 
of felspar ; and even of this greenstone there are several sub- 
varieties, such as amygdaloid, wacke, &c. And possibly this 
greenstone may be melted granite. 

7th. Clayslate, so called, may be considered as argileoy- 



MECHANICS. 113 

silice ; and of it there are many kinds — and among these 
kinds of it is the honestone, called novaculite. Its gravity i» 
about 2. 

8th. Calceacarbonubi consists of calcea 28, and of carbon- 
oxatubi 22 — or equivalent to equivalent. Its gravity is about 
2-5, and its crystals are rombic. Among it is found magne- 
seocarboneoxatubi, and these two minicos are occasionally 
united into what is called Dolomite. 

9th. Serpentine consists mostly of magneseosilice. Its 
gravity is about 2*5, and it is unctuous to the touch, and, 
as species of this family of'lithaples, I should consider talca, 
chlorite, &c 

(114.) Under this head of minicology (113), we have the 
subject of Crystalology, and under this last mentioned one 
we have that of Crystalography, Isomerism, &c. And here 
we have to observe, that for the reason that the same sub- 
stance will crystcJize in one from another different ways, 
a fact well known, we must look first to the manner in which 
its constituents come together ; and if the cause is not here, 
then to its calore, which may assume a modification a little 
variant in one from what it happens to be in another case. 

(115.) Inerte, or, practically speaking, we may say mate- 
ria, is controled by ethere ; and thus particles of materia 
may be brought even amorphously together in one case dif- 
ferently from what similar ones are in another ; and hence 
they may crystalize differently, the one from the other set of 
them, a phenomeno, hitherto wholly inexplicable, that is ac- 
tually found to take place in crystalization. In other words, 
two individual substances may be materially and yet not ethe* 
really isomeric, the one with the other of them. Thus much 
will be useful hereafter, in the course of this work. Refer- 
ing the reader to the numerous books abroad upon this sub- 
ject, we shall say no more about it here, 

MECHANICS. 

(116.) We proceed to Mechanics (46), which are the 
second department here made of physics (46), and which 
consist, as heretofore (46) said, of the consideration and treat- 
ment of the powers, operations and uses of essentia. And in 
this treatment we shall require the aid of much chimistry, as 
well as of much mathematics. And in fact our definition of 
mechanics includes, and is intended to include, the one we 
have heretofore given of chimistry, (47) ; and certainly it 
must be proper, and even necessary, to avail ourselves of 
10* 



114 PHYSICS. 

what we may have done in advancing further in any case. 
And in mechanics we have, embracing the whole of them, 
three primary divisions : 1st, Etheromechanics, where the 
essentia concerned, though something that exists in contra- 
distinction to mere vacant space, is not a substance, as that 
word is usually understood, but only ethere, and where the 
power by which it is actuated, though spontaneous and wholly 
inherent, is nothing further than simple attraction ; 2d, Hylo- 
mechanics,or Hylabiamechanics, or the mechanics of lifeless 
substances where that attraction becomes modified into, al- 
ways Gravitation and Cohesion, for I consider that a kind of 
cohesion exists, not only among the particles of a solid, pro- 
perly so called, but even among those of the rarest substan- 
ces, and generally Elasticity also, to a greater or less extent ; 
and 3d, Bionomechanics, or the mechanics of vitality, which 
is a compound of the other two just above mentioned. And 
under each of these heads we have — 1st, Dynamics, a gene- 
ral term for the powers, operations and effect of essentia ; 
2d, Designation, or Design, whose business it is to invent and 
to plan out what is to be done upon this or that occasion ; 
and 3d, Operation, which is putting essentia to actual use. 
We shall give an instance here of each of these three species 
of dynamics, and then pass to Hylomechanics, or hylabiame- 
chanics, where all of the same maybe brought perhaps direct- 
ly or indirectly into requisition ; and thence proceed to the 
other divisions of our subject. 

(117.) Respecting Etherodynamics (116) we have now 
something to offer. And it must be here remembered that 
the particles of ethere are perfectly elastic, and spontaneous- 
ly and constantly vibrating upon each other ; and yet, with 
this vibration we must be careful not to associate the idea of 
Impulse, for there is no such thing attending it as that term is 
usually understood in hylomechanics. The rationeality of 
the refraction of light will be now given, and the accompany- 
ing diagrama, fig, 3, will aid us perhaps in doing so. Here 

Fiff. 3, 




MECHANICS. 115 

the letter a is intended to represent a particle of calore which 
is imagined to vibrate upon another one, b ; and this b is sup- 
posed to vibrate, in its turn, upon C; and C, instead of fall- 
ing, as it tends to do, upon i, is attracted by a particle of calore 
in the surface of the substance A B, and is thus turned upon 
d, which vibrates upon e, &c. And the same attraction takes 
place in the opposite direction — that is, e strikes d, and d 
strikes C, and C, instead of striking k, directly ahead of its 
last movement, is attracted as before, and so turned to b, 
which strikes a, &c. And as to the reflection of light which 
generally takes place more or less from all illuminated sub- 
stances, as represented by the line c k in our diagrama, I 
shall have more to say hereafter. If the ray e d c, &c, were 
a real stream of any essentia in locomotion, and not, as wo 
aver at least, if we have not proved it to be, the mere vibra- 
tion of stationary particles of ethere, it would be likely to be 
attracted, we may well suppose, I think, into the curved line 
C I. And again, if it were such a stream, it would be apt, I 
opine, to become much accumulated in many localities, and 
especially in the eyes of animals ; and certainly it does not 
appear to be so. True enough, it is attracted as just men- 
tioned above, but it does not seem to gravitate, as that term 
has been heretofore explained ; and therefore it cannot be, 
properly speaking, emitted from any body, as every mechani- 
can, who thinks at all upon the circumstance here suggested, 
must readily perceive. But I need not pursue these objec- 
tions to the supposition that light is any substance, or even 
essentia, that actually comes from luminous bodies to our 
eyes, for upon that supposition none of its phenomenoes can 
be rationally explained. 

The ray r s, or t u, which passes closely along the side of 
any substance, A B for example, is found to be a little in- 
flected, although the effect is not indicated in our fignre ; and 
this inflection is caused by the same power which brings about 
the refraction under consideration, and is only a modification 
of it. 

Let us take another view of this subject. Suppose the line 
A B of our figure to be moved down to t, and there to be 
parallel to its present position. Upon this line thus situated 
drop from C a perpendicular, and call the point where that 
perpendicular meets A B, m. The particle, C, having been 
acted upon, as above suggested, by the particle, 6, of calore, is 
attracted, we have said, by a particle of calore in the surface 
A B ; and this attraction will be very obviously directed to- 
ward our 7H, the nearest point in that substance to the C be- 



116 PHYSICS. 

fore us, so that this C will be drawn by two forces — that is, 
by one toward i, and another toward the m which we have in 
our mind ; and hence the deviation j C e will be always, as 
observation proves, proportional to the angle a C B. And 
remember here two things— -1st, that the particle C is the 
first one that is found in the chain of them a b C, within what 
is called striking distance from those in the surface A B ; 
and hence none above it are thus affected ; and 2d, that the 
reason why the particle C does not regain its position so as 
to vibrate upon i, is because the particle in the surface is con- 
fined there as a constituent part of that substance, and there- 
fore draws C, without being much drawn by it ; and so we 
perceive that this turning aside of the ray is obviously angu- 
lar, and not curved. The particles of calore in one substance 
affect free ones amid the circumstances before us more than 
do those in another ; and hence light is differently refracted, 
according as it appears through one from another different 
substances, but all have their own proportion, which for each 
one is evidently constant in this case. The law of refraction 
has, been long known, but the cause of it is now for the first 
time demonstrated. 

(118.) A particle of calore which vibrates, as here men- 
tioned, upon a doubly refracting surface, must become divided 
there into two portions, while on the contrary the conjoint 
operation of two particles of the calore in the surface of such 
a substance appears to be requisite for effecting one of those 
which they affect at all in the phenomeno of double refrac- 
tion. And something analogous to this takes place, undoubt- 
edly, in what is called by the barbarous and inexpressive 
term, the Polarization of light. And as to colors, they are 
caused, unquestionably, not by any thing generically differ- 
ent from the ethere under consideration, but by one from ano- 
ther different species, and perhaps varieties, or even simple 
modifications of it. And bear in mind here that it is only 
some of the obvious generalities, and not the minutias, that 
we are attempting now to designate in the character of vipo 
aod reno. And here, according to our present arrangement 
of different subjects, is the proper place for the whole science 
of Optics, for additional information respecting which the 
reader is referred to the numerous works already extant upon 
them. 

(119.) We have spoken of the dynamical powers of ethere. 
We shall now give our attention to those of materia, or, in other 
words, to Gravitation, Cohesion, and Elasticity ; and first to 
Gravitation ; and we proceed to show how materia attracts 
its like as it is found to do. 



MECHANICS. 117 

1 2 3 4 56789 

Fig. 4 : vir vir vir vir vir vr vr vr vr 

In the accompanying representation, fig. 4, v means a por- 
tion of vipo, r of reno, and i of inerte ; and recollect that our 
two kinds of ethere are perfectly elastic, and constantly seek- 
ing each the most tempting quantity of its opposite kind, and 
also inerte, provided the latter is within its reach ; and that 
consequently a small tremulous motion is common to them 
even when they are neutralized in calore. 

Now r3 in this representation will hold upon i3 at its left, 
and tend at the same time toward v4, its nearest neighbor at 
its right, while this same v4 will hold uporti4 at its righf, and 
tend backward, at the same time, toward its neighbor r3. But 
v4 has only two i's, that is, i4 and i5, to pull, while r3 has 
three of them, that is, i3, i2 and il, to draw ; and hence this 
v4 will move further toward its neighbor r3 than this last 
mentioned portion of reno will do in the opposite direction 
toward its neighbor v4 ; and this motion of v4, greater than 
is that of r3, will be communicated to the passive mass of 
i4, and thence to the elastic essentia r4, so that the motion 
of r4 will be greater than is that of r3 ; and for reasons al- 
ready assigned, the motion of v5 will be greater than is that 
of v4, and this motion of v5, will be communicated in the 
usual manner to r5 ; and for reasons here given the motion of 
v6, greater than has hitherto been among these particles, will 
be communicated to r6, and thence to v7, and thence to r7, 
and so onward indefinitely from one to another of these par- 
ticles of ethere, which are here supposed to be perfectly 
elastic, and to lie beyond our passive inerte. 

Now it will be readily perceived here, I think, that this 
vibration will increase in rapidity and intensity as long as the 
particles of inerte, or supports for ethere, i4, i5, &c, are 
found in any collection of materia, and no longer than they 
are so found; though the motion vr6, vr7, &c, which are 
supposed to be located beyond the i's in question, will be 
continued as long as perfectly elastic essentia of any kind is 
so in the same direction. And here let me add, that upon 
the quantity of ethere that such a collection contains, the 
effect of the vibration here mentioned does not appear to be 
at all dependent. In fact we know, experimentally, that 
vapor weighs no more than it does when condensed to soli- 
dity ; and hence gravitation must be unitense in all regions 
where ethere is found at all, be the quantity of it greater or 
less there. If calore is dense, its vibrations must be short; 
and if rare, they must be proportionably long, 



118 PHYSICS. 

Again, as the extreme portion of reno, r9, at the right in 
our representation, will tend toward its neighbor v9 at its 
left, and this last mentioned portion of vipo toward its neigh- 
bor r8, and this to v8, and this to r7, &c, the consequence 
follows that unless this r9 is drawn at the same time to the 
right, it will tend indefinitely toward the center at i3 ; and 
hence the inference becomes very obvious, I think, that if 
calore were not indefinitely extended it would concentrate, 
taking along with itself all the inerte, or materia if you 
please, that might come in its way, and thus assume a maxi- 
mue density ; and as there is no appearance to us of any 
such concentration, the conclusion becomes to me irresisti- 
ble, that our calore or ethere must exist, and be unidense and 
unitense throughout all space. And beyond the farthest 
ethere must be materia ; and beyond this materia there must 
be ethere again, and so onward forever in all directions from 
any given position. 

From what we have said above, we perceive that materia, 
which, remember, is a compound of inerte and ethere, attracts 
its like according to the number of supporting points, or mo- 
leculas of inerte ; or rather, according to the quantity of 
inertia which its ethere finds within it. And perhaps we 
may as well as otherwise suppose, for the moment, that every 
particle of inerte, of whatever kind, have the same inertia or 
inertness, and that consequently gold contains more of them 
than silver does in the same bulk. At any rate we may say 
that materia attracts its like at a given distance according to 
its inertia. 

(120.) We shall now proceed to show why it is that given 
masses or collection of materia attract each other inversely, 
as the square of the distance of their centers apart. And be 
it not at this time forgotten, that the calore of space is con- 
tinuous, or may be, fur our present purpose, considered to be 
so, though it may not be isomeric, as chimistes would say, 
with that of any collection of materia within it. For exam- 
ple, a body of materia rotates within the calore that surrounds 
it. A portion of its surface is now in contact with some of 
this calore, and then again another portion of that surface is 
in contact with the same calore, and the ultimate effect upon 
the calore in question appears to be, practically, the same as 
though the body of which we are speaking were at absolute 
rest. Remember, furthermore, that the inertia of those col- 
lections of materia causes, in proportion to its quantity, a vi- 
bration, or adds intensity and strength to that which exists 
spontaneously in this calore, so that the latter will be con- 



MECHANICS. 



119 



Fig. 5. 



stantly pulling together any two of the collections in ques- 
tion, betwixt which it may happen to be, and thus giving rise 
to what we call gravitation. And the accompanying dia- 
grama, fig. 5, will aid us, perhaps, in 
what we have thus undertaken to do. 
The lines A H, a d, a' g, &c, will 
represent each a coiled spring, which 
is stretched and tending to contract 
again, and thus pulling or attracting the 
body B ; and here remember that the 
particles of ethere being perfectly elas- 
tic, the intensity of vibration in any 
given chain, C B, of them is not affect- 
ed by distance ; and the very inspec- 
tion of our figure is sufficient to enable 
any one to perceive that the number of 
these chains, or springs, emanating 
from A or C, and intercepted by B, will 
be, as long as it is neither condensed nor 
rarified, inversely as the square of the 
distance of the latter from the former ; 
and hence the attraction of any one 
particle in the body A, will be inversely 
as the square of the distance at *vhich 
it acts. And we have a demonstration 
already extant, and well known to Me- 
chanicans, that, admitted attraction to 
vary in the manner here indicated ; 
then, as long as a body is 
spheric, its attraction is 
the same, whether much 
expanded or contracted, 
so that attraction is esti- 
mated from the center of 
the attracting body. True, 
the body B, when ex- 
panded, will intercept a 
greater number of those 
chains than when it is 
contracted ; but then the 
line i H will contain, in 

either of these cases, the same quantity of inertia ; and 
it is this inertia concentrated, or not so, which causes 
attraction, and the same may be said of d g, or of any other 
diameter through B. We therefore perceive that sphe- 




120 PHYSICS. 

rical bodies of materia attract each other in proportion to their 
respective inertias directly, and to the square of the distance 
of their centers apart inversely. 

And here let us repeat what we have already said sub- 
stantially, that the cause, and of course we mean the whole 
of it, which brings, or tends to bring, together, whether chimi- 
cally or mechanically, two bodies or collection of materia, is 
not found within or about either of them alone, but in both of 
them considered at one and the same time. And this aver- 
ment may be understood thus : Two persons, each one alone 
by himself in a boat that is floating at a distance from the 
other boat here indicated, and upon the same collection of 
water, are pulling, one at each end of the same rope, and the 
consequence will be that they will be drawn, more or less 
directly, toward each other ; and the one that pulls the most 
will be the least moved in such a case ; and, even admitted 
that one of these agents becomes stationary while both of 
them continue to pull, as here suggested, they will be found 
together just as soon as they would be, if both of them were 
moving, and the rest of what we have here supposed remaining 
unaltered respecting them. In a word, the distance between 
them would be shortened amid the circumstances here sug- 
gested, in proportion to the attraction of both of them together ; 
and so we understand what planetologistes mean when they 
tell us that, to the inertia of a heavenly body, considered 
in reference to its attraction upon any other one that may hap- 
pen to attend it, should be added, in strictness, that of such 
attendant — that is, heavy masses of materia will draw their- 
selves together sooner than two lighter ones will do so from 
the same distance apart. 

And here we perceive that the persons in the boats above 
supposed could not pull unless supported or resisted or re- 
acted upon, and this reaction consists of their own inertia, 
and that of the boat, together with the obstruction which the 
latter meets with in the water ; and hence we infer, as often 
heretofore, that ethere could not pull upon materia, unless it 
had something, which can be no other than the same kind of 
thing, to hold upon in the opposite direction ; and of course 
we have to repeat here what will bear repeating, for it can- 
not be too well understood, that beyond the farthest materia 
there must be ethere, and beyond that ethere there must be 
materia again, and so onward forever, in all directions from 
any given position. 

Gravitaiton, like light, is doubtless progressive, though its 
effects are instantaneous. The vibrations which a revolving 



MECHANICS. 121 

body is constantly meeting from its central one, commenced, 
in all probability, sometime previously to such occurrence. 

It is true that glass happens to be so constituted that the 
vibrations of its inherent ethere extend beyond it and affect 
the eyes of animals, while those that take place in a block of 
marble do not so ; but this is no indication that light and gra- 
vitation are not both the modified effects of one and the same 
cause. The reason of this difference is to be sought, I think, 
rather in the character of the substance itself than in that of 
the ethere which acts upon it. 

As gravity is constant the velocity of a falling body in- 
creases with the same constancy. 

(121.) Of Cohesion (119) we have spoken in chimistry ; 
and there we found it to be the mere effect of dyname chimic. 
One of the two etheres in a particle of materia, simple or 
compound, holds upon the same, suppose, with one hand, and 
reaches the other one to its opposite bipetenfe in another par- 
ticle of the same kind of thing ; and thus the two bipetentes 
in question, holding each upon its own particle of inerte, 
bind them together into one homogene mass, and hold them 
there till the same etheres are excited, and no matter for the 
moment how, to draw them asunder again, and thus perhaps 
into other compounds in pursuit each of a new quantity of its 
opposite bipetente. And this cohesion of parts is what dis- 
tinguishes the solid from the fluid ; for in the latter the par- 
ticles must be considered, not only as extremely small, but 
infinitely so, and as destitute, mostly at any rate, of cohesion. 
And here let it be added that cohesion differs from gravita- 
tion in no essential particular. All the difference is that the 
number of the particles of ethere betwixt a heavenly body 
and either of its attendants must be greater than is that of 
the particles of ethere betwixt any two molecules of such 
body. 

(122) Elasticity (119) and solidity, or hardness, it may be 
relevant here to define ; and, first, we shall attempt to do so 
negatively. A body is not elastic perfectly, and may not be 
so at all, to a force which permanently affects its form, or 
indents it ; and one is perfectly so, in a given case, which 
restores itself as rapidly and energetically as it may have 
been compressed. Wool is considerably elastic to a small 
force, but not much so to a great one, for it may be perma- 
nently compressed. A body is perfectly hard to any force 
which does not compress or indent it permanently ; and of 
course it may be elastic or not so. An elastic body, striking 
upon one that is at all hard, whether perfectly or not so, to 

11 



122 



PHYSICS. 



its force, will rebound more or less. If such a body strikes 
one that is not elastic, whether perfectly hard to its force or 
not so, the whole available "compression, which we here call 
one, for causing the first to rebound, will be therein. If the 
body upon which it strikes is elastic, then a part of this force 
will be there, while the rest will be in the striking one ; and 
both of these parts together will make the whole, or one as 
before, and the same striking body rebounds, partly by means 
of its own compression, and partly by those of the one upon 
which it so strikes. And remember here that in the case 
now supposed the striking body is not compressed as much 
as it would have been had the other been incompressible. 
And it is not true, as I find asserted in some of the books, 
that one elastic body, infringing upon another that is equally 
so, rebounds twice as forcibly as it would have done had 
such other been simply hard and not elastic ; but it is true 
that if two ivory balls, being as they are, very hard and elas- 
tic, are permitted to fall against each other, they will rebound 
to the same point, or nearly so, from whence they fell. Each 
becomes in this case a base for the other, and is compressed 
as much as it would be were it to fall so upon a fixed and 
perfectly hard, and yet not elastic body ; so that here, to be 
sure, is a kind of double force. 



A perfectly elastic 
Fig. 



body, 
6. 




b, fig. 6, not rotating upon any 
axe, and falling 
upon another per- 
fectly hard one, A 
B, whether elas- 
tic or not so, will 
rebound to the 
same position, if 
not resisted, from 
whence it so fell. 
If it falls oblique- 
ly, as indicated at the left hand side of our figure from the 
position c d, to that of c' d', it will be thrown, resistance aside, 
by the reaction at d', and more especially by that at n, into 
the position, first, of a' b', and then of c" d", at the right hand 
side of our figure, such that the axe, c" d'', will make in ris- 
sing the same angle in magnitude, c 1 ' d" B, with the surface 
A B, which it did c' d' A, while descending in the position 
c' d f , as indicated at the left side of our figure ; or, in other 
words, both the angle and force of reflection are respectively 
equal in the case here supposed to those of incidence ; and 



MECHANICS. 123 

it is the reaction at n' O', equal to the direct action n O, upon 
the left side of our figure, which prevents the body under 
consideration from turning any further than it actually does 
towards B, and throws it upward to the height, or nearly so, 
from whence it may have fallen, causing it to move, in that 
ascent, along the direction 0' c"', which is inclined toward 
B precisely as much as the direction c O, in which it falls, is 
inclined toward A. 

If such a body rotates upon any axe, the direction of that 
rotation will be reversed at the impact here mentioned ; but 
if that axe is any other than the one that is perpendicular to 
the line of its direction, and parallel to the plane upon which 
it falls, the reversal in question will be likely to be restored. 

I perceive no reason for supposing that the particles of any 
collection of materia fluid, or solid, ever rotate ; but, on the 
contrary, many considerations, adverse to the probable cor- 
rectness of such a supposition, will be likely to occur to any 
one who thinks for a moment upon it. 

In the case of sound we all understand, or think we have 
reason to believe, that the vibrations which occasion it are 
communicated from one to another particle in the atmosphere 
where it takes place. And, as to an echo, the admission is 
readily made, among mechanicans, that particles of air be- 
come driven against the body which causes it, and that these 
particles, being elastic, rebound, as just explained here, and 
thus affect, in their turn, other ones of the same thing, which 
consequent^ affect others still, and so onward, or rather 
backward, to the ears which hear it — and perhaps more or 
less indefinitely — or as far as the mediue concerned may 
chance to extend. And here we have at once the explana- 
tion of the manner in which light is reflected, respecting 
which phenomeno we shall have more to say hereafter. 

Of the dynamics "of vitality (116) we shall be able to speak 
more advantageously at a future stage of these remarks. 

(123 ) Designation (1 16), the second division here made of 
mechanics, embraces that portion of them which depends 
much upon Taste, as we call it, a term that implies, when 
applied to thought, an accurate discernment of what is proper 
or not so in given cases, and the functions of this designa- 
tion, are, we have already said (116), to invent and to plan 
out what, is to be done upon this or that particular occasion. 
And such a plan is called a Projection, of which descriptive 
Geometry, so called, is a mere variety, and the same may be, 
either ; 1st, Direct, or orthographic, as in case of a profile, 
where the spectator's eye is supposed to be directly in front 



124 PHYSICS. 

of every point of the object that is pictured according to it ; 
or, 2d, Oblique, as in ordinary „cases of mechanic drawing, 
where every point but one, of the object that is represented 
by means of it, is supposed to be viewed in an oblique man- 
ner ; and, 3d, the Sphericoblique, or the sterographic, which 
is the one pursuant to which spherical surfaces are commonly 
represented. — And all these three kinds of projection, maybe 
either; 1st, Perspective, where the thing which is drawn is 
represented, just as it appears to be at a distance ; or, 2d, 
Isometric, where the real proportions are given to all parts of 
the thing so drawn ; or, 3d, Isometerspective, a combina- 
tion of the other two kinds of projection, the perspective and 
isometric here mentioned ; where the portions that would be- 
come hid, of a thing in perspective, or too large in isometric, 
are partially and only partially represented. 

Of the direct (123) projection are all ordinary profiles, as 
we have already suggested, and by means of it also, the polar 
regions of the earth, and likewise smaller portions of other 
parts of the earth's surface, are frequently pictured. 

The oblique projection is that, as heretofore said, accord- 
ing to which machinery, buildings and landscapes are usually 
represented; and the sphericoblique (123) is so called, as 
just above indicated, because spheric surfaces are represented 
in pursuance of it. And here the eye is supposed to be in 
the equatoreal circle, and thus viewing the convex surface of 
a hemisphere. In demonstrating the - rationality of this last 
kind of projection, considerable knowledge of analytic trigo- 
nometry is required ; and, even in the other kinds of it, some 
little knowledge of trigonometry is occasionally necessary, 
besides mere inspection, which is commonly sufficient to en- 
able the draughtsman to proceed correctly. 

(124.) Under the head of Operation (116), by which we 
mean, in this case, the controlling, disposing and apply- 
ing of essentia, let us notice that we have three families, 
or kinds of instrumentality, or apparatue, for doing so ; 
or, in other words, for applying mechanical power to the 
objects around us, namely ; the Pulley, the Plane and the 
Lever; and, in case of the Pulley (124), there must be one 
that is fixed in position of course, while, from the weight to 
be moved, or from a movable pully to which that weight is 
attached, a rope must be made to pass over the fixed pulley 
in question, "and then back to the movable one, and, then 
again, over the fixed one as before, and so onward ; and, in 
this apparatue, the power is to the weight to be moved, as 
one is to the number of parts of the rope in question, that are 



, 



MECHANICS. 125 

found extending from both sides of the moveable pulley to the 
fixed one ; and hence it will be perceived, that if this 
rope passes but once over or through the fixed pulley of 
which we have spoken, and does not afterward pass through 
the movable one also, the power will become to the weight 
as one to one, or that nothing is gained or lost in the case, 
except, perhaps, an advantage in the change of direction, 
which is thus given to the power ; while, if the rope in ques- 
tion passes twice over the fixed pulley under consideration, 
and does not proceed again to the movable one, the power be- 
comes to the weight as one to three, and if it passes three 
times thus, the power will be to the weight one to five. 

(125.) In case of the Plane (124), which hardly needs to 
be described here, the power is to the weight as the eleva- 
tion of that end of the plane toward which the weight is made 
to move, above the other end of it, is to its length. And 
hence, if it is perpendicular, it affords no advantage, except, 
perhaps, to guide the ascending weight. And, if it is hori- 
zontal, it offers no resistance except "in its friction. And, of the 
Plane, we have three kinds or species ; 1st, the Plane proper ; 
2d, the Wedge, or Double Plane, in which case the slant side 
is the length, and half the thickness of the head the elevation, 
of which we have spoken ; and, 3d, the Screw, in which case, 
the distance between two adjacent threads, measured coinci- 
dently with the axe of the screw, is the elevation, and the 
circumference in the direction of ^one of these threads, the 
length in question. 

(126.) In regard to the Lever (124), which we shall not 
stop here to describe, the power is to the weight inversely 
as the proportionable distance of that power is from the fulcer 
or prop, and, of course, when the distances here indicated 
are equal to each other, nothing is gained or lost, except, 
possibly, what may be so in the change that may be thus given 
to the direction of this power. And here we have three spe- 
cies ; 1st, or the one which we shall here mention first in 
order, though put by some in the third place, when the power 
is betwixt the fulcer and the weight ; as is generally true in 
regard to the muscles of an animal, and in which case it will 
be greater than the resistance ; 2d, when the weight is be* 
twixt the fulcer and the power, in which case the latter will 
be always less than the weight is ; and 3d, when the fulcer 
is betwixt the power and the weight ; and here we have 
three varieties ; 1st, the Wheel and Axle, in which case the 
power, if applied to the wheel, is less ; though, if applied to 
the axle, it is greater than the weight is ; 2d, the Fixed 
11* 



126 PHYSICS. 

Pulley, or Equibrachiate Lever, where the power is equal to 
the weight, and where, consequently, nothing is lost or gained, 
except perhaps in the change in the direction of that power; 
and, 3d, the Crank, which is but another form of the wheel 
and axle, where the power, as in the apparatue just men- 
tioned, may be either greater or less, or not so, according to 
circumstances, than the resistance is. Much has been writ- 
ten, and attempted to be demonstrated, about the loss of 
power here, but the authors of what has been thus done knew 
not vyhat they were aiming at. Theoretically, there is no 
loss of power in the crank, nor is there practically any loss of 
it there except what may be attributed to an accidental or 
occasional disadvantage which attends all machines of a me- 
chanical character. 

And here it should be recollected, that in all these ma- 
chines for applying mechanical power, the weight that is 
moved being divided by the time of its being so, gives for a 
quotient, provided there is no friction to be taken into consid- 
eration, a constant quantity. Theoretically, if I can move 
one pound in one minute by hand, I can move a hundred 
pounds in a hundred minutes by means of the proper ma- 
chine. But the friction of machinery is usually such, that 
this hundred pounds will become considerably reduced in 
amount. At any rate, taking time into consideration, there is 
nothing gained by machinery, where the parcels are small, 
so that the operator can be properly loaded by a portion of 
them from time to time till they are all disposed of; but, if 
they are large, so that he cannot be so loaded by them, much 
is gained by the application of machinery to them ; for they 
could not be moved without it. I speak now of human or 
discretionary power, which is supposed to be applicable direct- 
ly to small things ; but the power of neither wind, steam or 
water can be so applied, and must be therefore necessarily used, 
if used at all, by means of machinery; and beside all this, a 
horse or an ox will draw upon wheels much more than he 
can bear upon his back, and carry along a good road ; and a 
man will raise a weight something less, not to say greater, 
than his own, by means of a fixed pulley, much easier than 
he can take it upon his back and carry it to the same eleva- 
tion. 

(127.) Under the general head of Mechanical Operations 
(124) we have to observe, that of them we have three kinds ; 
1st, Hylabiamechanics, or the mechanics of lifeless sub- 
stances ; 2d, Ethero-mechanics, or the common operations of 
ethere ; which, although an essence, is not a substance, re- 



MECHANICS. 127 

member ; and, 3d, Bionomeclianics, or the mechanics of vi- 
tality. And of each of these, we have, 1st, the Spontaneous, 
or natural ; 2d, the Created, or artificial ; and, 3d, a Com- 
pound of the two here mentioned. And under the head of 
hylabiamechanics (127) we have ; 1st, Stereomechanics, or 
the mechanics of solid substances ; 2d, Reumomechanics, or 
the mechanics of perfect fluidity ; and, 3d, Aeromechanics, 
or the effects of the elasticity of gases. 

The origin, movements and inhabitants of the heavenly 
bodies, a subject, respecting which we shall speak more fully, 
than what it now said of them, hereafter, under the head of 
planetology, are all the results of spontaneous or natural me- 
chanics, hylabia, ethereal, and bionic ; and in the hylabia 
portion of them, we have the Stereo Reumo, and aero kinds 
of them. 

(128.) Under the head of Stereomechanics (127) we give 
here a criticism upon that great work, the Croton Aqueduct, 
which was published while the same was in progress of erec- 
tion, and which will answer as a specimen, both of the artifi- 
cial and the compound hylabiamechanics. 

The city of New York is soon to be supplied with water 
from the Croton river, a mill stream that rises among the 
highlands of Westchester and Putnam counties, in the State 
of New York, and, winding its way in a southwestwardly di- 
rection, discharges from thirty to fifty millions of gallons 
daily into the Hudson, a few miles north of Sing Sing, a vil- 
lage of the same county of Westchester, that has just been 
spoken of. Across the first mentioned river, and about six 
miles from its mouth, and nine miles by the road, in a north- 
eastwardly direction from Sing Sing above named, a dam is 
now being constructed, the top or lip of which is to be 166 
feet above the high tide water at New York ; and from the 
pond thus to be formed, the water is be conducted upon an 
inclined plane, (and of course it must be so conducted, if con- 
ducted at all, for no locks are admissible in such a case,) com- 
mencing at an elevation of 153 feet above the tide water 
aforesaid, and descending gradually about fourteen inches in a 
mile for the distance, included the windings, and its course 
is very serpentine, of about 23 miles to the Harlem river, 
where it will be 120 feet above the same tide water of which 
we have already spoken ; and furthermore, it is still to be con- 
tinued in various modes, across that river about nine miles, 
first to a receiving reservoir which is to hold 158,000,000 
gallons, and thence through iron pipes to a distributing one 
which is to hold 19,000,000 gallons ; the latter being some- 



128 PHYSICS. 

thing like three miles to the north of the City Hall of the 
same city above mentioned ; and thence it is to be sent again 
through iron pipes to the houses and other places where it 
may be required for use. And of this work, which is now 
nearly complete, the expense, according to the recent mes- 
sage of the Mayor, is about $12,000,000 ; and this is near 
enough for my present purpose. 

The region of country through which this aqueduct passes 
is very uneven, and, notwithstanding every practicable effort 
was made to avoid hills and valleys in locating it, still many 
of both were found in its way; so that in constructing it, as 
may be supposed, several tunnels and many deep cuts were 
made, and many low places were raised, with earth and ma- 
sonry, to its level. 

The aqueduct proper, or the channel in which the water in 
this case passes, is constructed thus : — Two walls are erected 
of common stone masonry, and lined upon their inside with 
one course of bricks, which rest upon other bricks that are 
placed edgewise in the form of an inverted arch of nine 
inches in depression ; and these walls, thus constructed of 
stone masonry and brick lining, are 6 feet and 9 in. apart 
from the inside of the one to that of the other, and 2 feet 8 
inches thick at the bottom ; and slope upward 4 inches upon 
each side to the height of 4 feet, so as to be 7 feet 9 inches 
apart from inside to inside, and 2 feet thick at the top ; and 
upon them is a semicircular arch that is eight inches thick ; 
and above the whole, when completed, the loose earth is 
thrown to the depth, or rather altitude of about 4 feet, to pre- 
vent the water which is to run below it from freezing during 
the winter season. It is not intended that the water shall 
rise in this case above the spring of the arch above, or top of 
the side walls of which we have spoken, and which, as we 
have already said, are 4 feet high; and adding 6 inches for 
the 9 inches in the depression of the inverted arch that has 
just been mentioned, we shall have4| ft. for the height of the 
water in the aqueduct ; and its width being 6| feet at the bot- 
tom, and 7 T 5 2 feet at the top, will be equivalent to 7 feet ; and 
thus we shall have 31^ or 32 feet at the most for the area of 
the end of the stream. 

Had this aqueduct been constructed wholly of bricks, its 
form should have been cylindric, like that of an ordinary 
sewer, and the ring or zone should have been one foot thick ; 
but such a structure would have been much more expensive, 
and no better than might have been the present one with a 
little variation, which we shall now point out. 



MECHANICS. 129 

In the 2d volume of Hutton's Mathematics, it is shown 
how piers and walls should be constructed, in order that they 
may support a given arch ; and calculations made pursuant to 
this demonstration will indicate that the walls of which we 
have spoken above should have had about eight inches more 
of leverage at the bottom; that is, had their base extended 
twelve instead otfour inches outwardly beyond their top, their 
exterior sides thus sloping upward, and their other parts re- 
maining as the same now are, they would have supported the 
arch and the earth above them ; while, as the case actually is, 
they do not do so, but are pressed with considerable force 
upon the earth which is thrown up against them. And no 
harm it is true will result from this circumstance where the 
aqueduct in question is wholly beneath the surface of the 
ground, for there its walls may be and doubtless have been, 
actually prevented from spreading in the least, by having the 
earth that is thrown in hetween them and the bank beyond 
trodden and beaten down firmly and compactly ; but where 
there is an embankment the same is not so easily effected. 
The loose earth that is, in this latter case, thrown up against 
the walls, yields more or less as the latter are pressed upon it ; 
and contractors and overseers upon this work have told me, 
that in consequence of the spreading of these walls, many- 
wide openings appear occasionally in the arch above and 
below, and that they have been obliged to stop the same, and 
sometimes more than once, with mortar, in order that, their 
work might bear inspection. 

This, however, should not be so. A little science, aided 
by what would have probably been no additional expense at 
all, would have built those walls so that they would not have 
spread in any place, whether in case of an embankment or 
deep cut ; while, for the want of that science, the work in 
question may give way, and nobody knows how soon ; and 
its engineers have no excuse for such ignorance, and espe- 
cially among the many school-masters who are every where 
abroad, and glad to instruct for a respectable living. 

We perceive that from the bottom of the aqueduct to the 
top or lip of the dam is 13 feet ; and that from the highest 
point to which it can ever be desired to have the water rise in 
the aqueduct, to the lip of the- dam, is 8 feet, if the engineers 
state correctly ; and hence we can readily imagine how a 
sluice may be constructed that will throw the water into this 
aqueduct with considerable velocity. 

A mile of this aqueduct will contain about 1,250,000 gal- 
lons ; and it is supposed that the present population of the 



130 



Fig. 7. 




city will require 7,000,000 gallons of water a day ; and 
hence, if the water fills the aqueduct, and moves at the rate 
of about six miles a day, it will be sufficient in quantity for 
the present. 

The Croton River is calculated to yield, when rather full 
than otherwise, about 50,000,000 gallons of water a day; 
and this, with a velocity of something less than two miles an 
hour, would all run through the aqueduct ; so that as to the 
dimensions of this channel I have no criticism to offer at 
present. 

Of the structure in question, some of the arches that occur 
over roads, ravines, etc., are elliptic, while the rest are circu- 
lar ones ; and those for the bridge which is now being erect- 
ed in the same structure over the Harlem River, are intended, 
according to the plan which the engineers publicly exhibit, to 



MECHANICS. 131 

be semi-circular. These arches are to be 15 in number; 
eight of them are to be over the river, and the other seven 
will be over the low ground which happens to be found upon 
the north-east or Westchester side of this river. Of the 
arches over the river, the piers from centre to center are to 
be 94 feet apart ; and of the other, the piers measured in the 
same way wilJ be 57 feet apart ; making a distance of 1,151 
feet for the whole bridge, and the same is estimated to cost 
about $900,000. 

A B, the span of the large arches, is to be 80 feet, and of 
the small ones 50 feet ; and C h, the elevation in the one 
case, is to be 25 feet, and in the other 40 feet of course, as 
we are to have semicircles ; and consequently, of the large 
arches the piers will be 14 feet thick, or in the direction of 
the bridge at the top, while those of the small ones will be 
only 7 feet there in that direction. 

In order that vessels may pass conveniently upon the Har- 
lem river beneath this bridge, the Legislature of the State 
have directed that the soffit beneath the crown of the large 
arches at h, shall be at least 100 feet above the surface of the 
water below it ; and this altitude, it will be borne in mind, is 
about 20 feet below the level of the aqueduct; and to avoid 
the expense as well as the weight of this 20 feet of structure, 
it is proposed to conduct the water across this bridge in iron 
pipes, to be laid in the form of an inverted siphon ; that is, 
the water will descend into them upon the Westchester side, 
and rise again to its proper level upon the New York side of 
the river, and thus pass on to the city ; and in the same man- 
ner too, though the circumstances may not be exactly in 
our way just now, it is to be conducted across a wide and 
deep valley a little further downward at Manhattanville.' 

These pipes are to be three feet in diameter within ; and 
of course four of them, the number proposed in this case, will 
present an area at their end of only about 28-1 feet, which is 
something less than the terminal area of the previous portion 
of the aqueduct, which we have just shown to be about 32 
feet. However, in a recent report of the chief engineer of 
this work, I perceive he proposes to give the water a fall of 
two feet in passing through these pipes, a circumstance that 
will doubtless fully compensate for their deficiency in dimen- 
sions. But still, if this work were mine, I should increase 
their diameter, and thus reserve the two feet of descent for 
the distributing reservoir. 

If these pipes were laid close together, they would cover a 
space of only about 12 feet in width ; but in order that one 



132 



PHFSICS. 



piece may be conveniently and properly joined with another, 
it will be necessary to spread them so that they will occupy a 
space about 15 feet wide ; and to prevent the water that will 
pass through them during" the winter season from freezing, it 
is proposed to have about, four feet of earth upoa every side 
of them ; so that on the whole, this bridge must be 26 feet 
wide, and have an extrade of 12 feet in altitude above the 
crown at h. The spandrel walls, which are to be two feet 
thick, are to be carried up to the height of sixteen feet above 
the same point at k. Here, then, we have two walls, 2 feet 
thick, 4 feet high, and 1151 feet long, equal to 18,416 feet of 
solid masonry, for which a light cast iron railing should be 
substituted ; and it will be readily perceived that this latter 
guard would be proper, in order to prevent accidents to per- 
sons who will naturally visit this work from time to time, and 
often in crowds. 

I observe that the foundation of the piers for the large 
arches is 26 feet thick, or in the direction of the bridge, and 
36 feet wide ; but this is suddenly contracted to 20 by 30 
feet, which may be considered as their real base ; and their 
height from the bottom of the river, which we shall suppose 
to average 20 feet in depth, is 80 feet ; so that it will be suf- 
ficiently obvious without any calculations just now, that hone 
of these arches will be able to stand alone. Should either of 
them fall, the whole 15, included all the piers, would follow 
it, and thus constitute a darn across the river whose navigation 
so much expense is now incurred to preserve. But this should 
not be so. Such a work will be a disgrace to the 19th cent- 
ury. The scientific observer, associating the idea of top- 
heaviness and tendency to fall, will almost shudder to look at 
it. 

The hances above d are intended to be filled up with ma- 
sonry that will be two-fifths cavernous ; and of course its 
specific gravity will be about the same as that of the earth 
and the water, including the pipes above it ; and hence we 
have the simplest case for equilibrating, according to the well 
known formula to which many contributed, but which seems 
to have been generalized and completed by Hutton. It is 
true we have two extrades here. Upon the edges of the arch 
we are to have one of 16 feet 'in altitude ; and in the centre 
another of 12 feet from the crown h ; but from actual calcula- 
tion I find that 15 feet maybe taken as an average extrade in 
this case, without any sensible error ; and besides, the intend- 
ed parapet, walls above a a should not be made. 

Applying the formula above alluded to, we find that if the 



* Mechanics. 133 

space B e h d B is filled up like the rest aboye it, the line of 
pressure or thrust h d V, commencing at the crown, will be so 
situated below the circular curve, that if the line i d is drawn 
perpendicularly downward from the top of the extrade a a i 
to the line of pressure in question, and through the place 
where the same is the farthest in a perpendicular direction 
from the circular curve just mentioned, the distance i d will 
be 100, when that of i e to the semicircle already referred to 
is SO. 

Now let us suppose the piers to be raised about 20 feet 
higher, to D and E, and then We shall have an elevation j h, 
of 20 feet ; and in this case, the space Eok,E being filled 
up like the rest above it, and the line i o drawn as before to 
the line of pressure, the same i o will be 100, when i n to the 
circular curve is 93 ; and this arch would be as good for the 
purpose in question as the other will be ; for any concession 
that would throw it down would be likely to destroy one of 
double its elevation and of the same span ; and thus we get 
rid of a large mass of masonry between the curves B d k and 
E u h, which for all the arches in question would be worth 
many thousands of dollars. 

If the large arches are semicircles, and if the top of all 
the piers, both of the large and the small ones, are brought, 
as good taste will require, to the same level, it will follow 
that a large amount of masonry and filling will be necessary 
upon the small arches, to the amount of 15 feet in altitude 
more than will be needed upon the large ones ; and hence, 
by adopting for the latter an elevation of only 20 feet, we 
shall be making a great improvement, besides dispensing with 
the wall upon each side, of which we have already spoken. 

Along the line of pressure B d h in the one case, or E o h 
in the other, should be placed the vousoirs or arch stones ; 
and thus we should have the arch of equilibration, which 
would be pressed in all places alike, and have no tendency 
to rise up or sink down at one point more than at another. 

If the vousoirs are placed along the circular curve B e h. 
the space B e h d B not being filled up like the rest above it, 
the line of thrust will pass above B e o, in the direction 
h c' c', etc., which is represented by the dotted curve on the 
left, but which is not intended, be it remembered, as a con- 
tinuation of the circular curve E n h. 

The equation or locus of the curve h c' c 7 , etc. is probably 
nowhere given, though it may be readily obtained as follows : 
Call r c' = a h=L3 in this case, and a' c'=za c~w—53, and 
the angle at r a right one* and t c' r being also a right angle, 

12 



134 PHYSICS. 

that of p & t will be found to be 73°, the natural tangent of 
which, radius being 40, will be 173. Now call h p = x, and 
p c = y, and the tangent in question will be dx^-dy ; and in the 
second volume of Hutton's mathematics, page 501 of the 
edition before me, it is shown that this tangent increases as 
the weight w=a' d z=.a c does in passing from the crown at 
h to c' c', etc., and thus to the spring ; and hence we shall have 
dw=C • (dx-^dy ;) but w=}3 in this case, when x and y 
both equal ; and therefore, 53 — 13 = 40z=C • 173 ; or C = 
40-^-173; and thus w>— 13 = (40<fo)-f-(173</y) ; but y 2 =(40) 2 
— (53— w) 2 ; or dy = (53dw—wdw)-±^/(\06w— m; 2 — 1209) ; 
or S{66wdw — wHw— 689dw)-^^/ (\06w—w 2 — 1209)=40x-± 
173. 

Of this equation, the left-hand side may be integrated in 
three distinct series ; but the numerical calculation thus indi- 
cated are formidable enough, and may not be soon made. By 
taking y='l, 2, 3, etc., successively, and thence obtaining the 
corresponding values of w, however, we can ascertain the 
respective angles x c' t", b c' t, p c' t, etc. ; p d being an or- 
dinate, and c' t a tangent to the curve. But however short 
we may take y, as long as it has any assignable length at all 
we shall always bring the curve h c / c', etc. too low down or 
too near the circular one h c c, etc. ; and unless y is taken 
very short indeed, the circular curve will prove to be the up- 
per one of the two. However, in an arch of almost any given 
curvature, whether circular, elliptic, cycloidal, parabolic, or 
hyperbolic, whose extrade is of a uniform specific gravity, 
and raised much above the crown and level upon the top, the 
line of thrust will pass above the curve ; and if a row of*vou- 
soirs is placed along this curve, another one should be placed 
above it in the line h c' c', etc. of thrust ; and hence we per- 
ceive that it is merely by accident that such arches stand. If 
the masonry along the curve h c' c', etc. is strong enough to be 
a substitute for vousoirs, very well, the arch will stand ; but 
if it yields, as it always does more or less, the crown of the 
arch will settle down, and the hanches will rise up ; and if 
the whole arch does not fall, no thanks are due to the archi- 
tect or design. 

The elliptic curve h m E is obviously as far from equilibra- 
tion as the circular one is ; and in all semi-peripheries, whe- 
ther of a circle, an ellipse, etc., the tangent of the angle x c' t", 
h c' t\ p c' t', etc. becomes infinite at the spring or top of the 
piers, and therefore the weight or w will be so there too ; but 
in the flat arch it never becomes anything, and consequently 
the thrust in such cases is always horizontal like that of a 



MECHANICS. 135 

wedge ; and even in the proper arch the principle is the 
same ; for a' c must effect a pressure in the direction r c to- 
ward the curvature, equal to that of a h at the crown, and this 
is analogous to a blow upon the head of a wedge ; and the 
remaining force of a' c' = a c is in the direction t c' upon the 
pier and similar to the horizontal thrust of a wedge ; so sim- 
ple is this subject, and even dynamics generally, when pro- 
perly understood. 

The smaller the number of degrees there is in a circular 
arch the more nearly is it equilibrated. Extended even to a 
hundred it will be sufficiently so for most practical purposes ; 
but beyond that the line of thrust begins to deviate widely 
from its curve ; and a semicircle is much out of the way in 
this respect ; an elliptic one much more so, as the very in- 
spec.ion of the above figure will show. Such a one occurs 
on the line of the Aqueduct where it crosses the road ; and 
the engineers are flapping their wings over it, and think they 
did a very cunning trick in erecting it — Oh! they know all, 
about an arch from Alpha to Omega, and need no instruction 
upon that subject from any one. It is not ignorance which 
does so much mischief in the world, but the obstinacy which 
attends it ; and so it is not money which is the root of all 
evil, but the abuse of it, or an inordinate love of it for its own 
sake. 

The injudicious manner in which they erected the dam 
across the stream where the Aqueduct commences is hardly 
worth noticing here. They made the place that is calculated 
for the water to run over it too small. A freshet arose and 
carried the whole away, and did to the structures and lands 
below much injury, which has cost our city some hundred 
thousands of dollars, beside subjecting it to the expense of 
erecting another. We should avoid the errors of others. 

Persons who ought to know better tell us about equilibra- 
ting an arch by giving a certain form to the vousoirs. Let 
us look at this a little. The line d 1 being drawn at right 
angles to B j, the vousoirs B d 1 andj d 1 will have no ten- 
dency to slide upon each other ; and so in all cases the junc- 
tures of the vousoirs should tend toward the center of the 
curvature of the line of thrust in an arch, or so as to fall at 
right angles to a line drawn from one juncture to another, 
and even when straight bars are put together end to end, as 
B d dj,j A. If the vousoirs are in the form, however, B d 
2 and j d 2, they will have a tendency to slide upon each 
other, though their mutual friction may prevent actual sliding, 

Now draw B p perpendicular to d 2, continued to s t and 



136 PHYSICS 

then alter the intrade or line of thrust to B 2, 2 p, p£, and 
the vousoirs B 2 s and p 2 s will have no tendency to slide 
upon each other ; but this and all other variations of the in- 
trude will require a corresponding variation of the extrade ; 
and those who tells us about making the same extrade suita- 
ble for any intrade whatever, merely by giving what they call 
the " proper form to the vousoirs" talk very foolishly, Jo say 
the best of them, and Hution and Gregory speak of them 
with much contempt. 

It is equally foolish to attempt to equilibrate an arch in an 
experimental manner, by hanging weights upon a chain that 
is attached at both ends so as to hang loosely, and thus to 
6 -m a curve. The thing is wholly impracticable ; for there 
is only one chance among an infinite number that the expe- 
Mter will succeed in his efforts. In short, as Hutton and 
Gregory and many others assure us, there is b.ut one practica- 
ble method of equilibrating an arch ; and that is, first, to know 
the extrade, span and elevation, and from thence to calculate 
the line of thrust, and there to place the vousoirs. The ope- 
ration is simple and easily affected, and it is suprising tome, 
at. least, that so few understand it. Many, who pass for good 
dynamicians, will preach a long sermon about a certain " fric- 
tion," which none^, as they contend, but the practical builder 
can possibly appreciate. As to this "friction" however, I 
have just said r 11 substantially that is to be said about it ; and 
ii those who pretend to be able to think cannot understand it, 
how can those do so who never think at all ? 

Again, we are lectured about cutting the vousoirs properly. 
Upon this point, too, I have just stated all that the practical 
builder, or any one else, understands or knows, and all that 
exists ; and if those who call themselves dynamicians do not 
comprehend it, I should like to know what they do compre- 
hend. 

But I am reminded that circular and elliptic arches are 
found to stand. True, they do so generally, though they 
sometimes fall; and I have just given the reason why they 
do either. How foolish it is to place the vousoirs where 
they will be of no use whatever, and then to substitute loose 
masonry for them where the true ones should be ! But the 
peasant would persist in putting a stone at the mouth of his 
bag, to balance the grain at the bottom of it, whenever he had 
occasion to carry that grain at all, because his ancestors had 
done so before him ; and equally bigoted, ignorant and foolish 
are mechanics now in erecting any arch but the one that is 
calculated from the span, elevation and extrade 



MECHANICS. 137 

It is true that a circular or elliptic arch over a door or win- 
dow in the side of a building is just as good as the calculated 
one, and that too because the masonry where the line of thrust 
actually passes, in such a case, is equally firm as is that 
which consists of vousoirs ; but the same is not generally 
true in the arch of a bridge. 

Let the large arches under consideration be divested of 
the parapet walls of which we have already spoken — let them 
have a moderate elevation, and be equilibrated — and let the 
piers upon which, they are to stand be extended to 40 feet at 
their base, and be contracted to 6 feet at the top, in the direc- 
tion of the bridge, and let them be three-fifths cavernous ; and 
any two of them will support the arch that is to rest upon 
them. Thus constructed, their thickness would be equiva- 
lent to 23 feet, while that of those which are now being 
erected is 17 feet. Three-fifths of the latter is 10J, and two- 
fifths of the former is 9^. Thus my piers would contain less 
masonry than will those which are now intended- Making 
mine one-half cavernous, their solid contents would be to that 
of the intended ones as Hi to ICfJ. But I should have 1524 
feet of solid masonry for each pier from the parapet walls, for 
which 1 have proposed to substitute an iron railing, and this 
would enable me to make my piers about as solid as the in- 
tended ones are to be. 

Again, placing the vousoirs where they should be, along 
the line of thrust in these arches, 1 would obviate the neces- 
sity of all that masonry which is intended to be put upon the 
hances and top of the piers as a substitute for vousoirs ; and 
thus by putting loose earth, or nothing at all in its place, I 
would save in each of those arches about 10,000 cubic feet 
of solid masonry, which would be equnl to about one-half of 
one of the intended piers. Look at_ this ! What pains are 
taken to make the piers in this case slender and the arches 
heavy — uselessly, ridiculously, nay even frightfully heavy ! 

But again, have one pipe of about 6^ feet in diameter, in- 
stead of four that are each 3 feet in diameter, for conducting 
the water across this bridge, and then the arches in question, 
and consequently the whole structure, piers and all, may be 
reduced from 26 to about 15 feet in width — nearly one half! 
and even this pipe would have as much earth and stone at its 
sides as will the exterior ones in the plan proposed. But 
this is ^t all. Instead of surrounding this pipe with earth to 
the thickness of 4 or 5 feet, inclose it in an air tight case, and 
then it will not be necessary to make this bridge more than 
ten ft. wide ; for one ft. in thickness of confined air will prevent 

12* 



138 PHYSICS. 

the water in question from freezing. We all know this to be 
so, and it is criminal to pretend that we do not. We ought 
to raise our voices in defence of science, which is treated 
with so much contempt in this case. Any fluid, whether li- 
quid or gaseous, will take heat very readily from any sub- 
stance with which it comes in actual contact, and will yield 
the same again with equal readiness to any substance with 
which it happens to meet, though it radiates or emits heat 
very slowly, if at all. It is a good transporter in case it has 
its' liberty, but a bad radiator of heat ; and hence, if pro- 
perly confined, it becomes a better insulator of heat than is 
any thing else. 

No other use can ever be made of this bridge than to con- 
duct the water in question across it, and for this puspose 
solely should it be erected. The piers should have a large 
base and a small top, and be very cavernous. Upon them 
light arches should be placed about ten feet wide, and upon 
these arches should be laid an iron pipe about 6 J feet in 
diameter within ; and this pipe should be inclosed in an air- 
tight brick case, whose walls should be only eight inches 
thick ; and one foot is distance enough for their inside to be 
from the pipe. And the water thus protected could never 
freeze while passing across this bridge. But as a further 
precaution, I would build an oven in the chamber which is to 
contain the influent water upon the Westchester side of this 
river, and in this oven a fire could be made during cold wea- 
ther, and thus communicate all its heat to the water ; but 
no such fire would ever be required. And thus we could 
have a bridge with equilibrated arches that would stand alone, 
for less than one-half of what it will now cost for one with 
arches that will not be equilibrated and will not stand alone. 
But in case of an earthquake, or a small failure in its mate- 
rials, it will dam the river, and cease to bear water to this city. 
And why should we pay $900,000 for a bridge in this case, 
when we can have one so much better for about $300,000 ? 

Stones of all kinds, it is well known, are subject more or 
less to disintegration and decomposition ; and that it is with- 
in the sphere of possibilities that some of these arches may 
fall, and that too within a few hundred years ; and every one 
will readily imagine that if such a catastrophy should occur 
while human inhabitants remain upon this island, they will 
look back and wish that the work in question had%een dif- 
ferently constructed. 

We should not now, in the nineteenth century, put up such 
a bridge, and especially when the proper one can be made 



MECHANICS- 139 

for less than half the money. To do so is an outrage upon 
the science of the day. Future generations will think we 
were crazy, for they will be certainly aware that we ought to 
have known better. 

(129.) A remark let us throw in here about mortar. The silice 
which is mixed up with this article drives out the water from 
its chimical connection there, and takes its place ; and then, 
instead of Argileoyaqua, or Calceaaqua, we have Argileoysi- 
hce, or Calceasilice, as the case may be. If the particles of 
silice are palpably large, the union here indicated does not 
extend deeply into them, but only into their surface ; and a 
small quantity of lime or clay will hold two particles of silice 
together better than a large one will ; and hence much silice, 
to a given or limited extent, is better than a little is, in mortar. 
To work stiff mortar enables the silice to drive out the water 
from its chimical connection there, and thus to render the 
union in question more complete ; and the water thus expelled 
will moisten the whole quantity thus operated upon. Water- 
lime, or cement, is found naturally existing in the earth, and 
is not easily, if at all, prepared from the ingredients which 
analyse shows to be in it. Clay and ferrea are both found 
mixed with the calcea there ; and upon the two former it is 
that the action of the silice seems first to commence, and 
thus to extend to the calcea which would not oherwise set, as 
the expression is, under water ; and so the whole mortar be- 
comes eventually hard and firm, though wholly submerged 
there. 

(&.) A small circular saw is called by those who use it in 
working metals, a Buzz. M ake this of soft sheet iron, and 
it will even then, if properly applied, cut away very hard 
substances ; and it does so by the accumulation of momentue ; 
and its tendency to yield a little without actually breaking, 
renders it better in some cases than it would be if it were 
harder. Hardened steel would rebound in this case and pro- 
duce less effect. 

(c.) Marble is sawn by means of a soft iron plate. It is 
drawn edgewise like a saw, and that edge is toothless ; 
wet sand is put betwixt it and the marble, and is drawn 
back and forward beneath it, and thus wears that marble 
away. If it had teeth they would soon disappear ; and if it 
were hard it would slip over the sand that is put beneath it, 
and thus produce no effect. 

Fig. 8. a c d b 

(d.) The inertia, or weight of a body, multiplied by the 
velocity with which it may be moved, is called its Momentue. 



140 PHYSICS. 

Suppose the quantity of inertia in the portion b c of the 
string a b, fig. 8, to be one, and that being already broken 
off at c, it is jerked with a force or velocity of ten ; and then 
its mornentue would be ten, and would balance another rao- 
mentue in the opposite direction of ten. Now suppose it 
would require a mornentue of ten to break the same string oft" 
at c, and this added to the ten which we have supposed to be 
necessary for removing, with the velocity of ten, the portion 
b c, when thus separated, wili make twenty. Now if the 
portion b d of the string in question could resist, by means of 
its weight and tenacity, a mornentue of only nineteen, it 
would break off at d, in the case supposed, although it might 
be, consistently with these suppositions, much stronger there 
than elsewhere ; but if the string of which we are speaking 
is pulled slowly and steadily with a velocity of only one, its 
inertia, as far as c, would be but one, and would resist a mo- 
rnentue of only one, which, added to ten, the mornentue re- 
quired to break it off at c, will make eleven ; and of course it 
must now break there. And thus we perceive that in slow 
and steady movements, the weakest part of what is acted 
upon will be the first to give way, while in sudden and un- 
steady ones they may not be so. In a manner not widely dif- 
ferent, from this may be explained how a common tallow can- 
dle can be shot through a board. The action upon the piston of 
an engine becomes necessarily more or less Percussive or 
sudden, and consequently disadvantageous ; for much of its 
power is thereby often lost in straining and racking, not only 
the engine itself, but the object which it ultimately moves. 
And here we are tempted to add something further upon per- 
cussive force, but our limits forbid. Here is the place for 
most of what are called the Mechanic arts, Agriculture, and 
even Surgery, &c, included. 

(130.) In Reumomechanics (127) gravitation is the princi- 
pal thing to he attended to ; or, in other words, a fluid, whe- 
ther liquid or gaseous, will find its own level when permitted 
to do so, a circumstance which is called Hydrostatics, and 
might be more 'properly denominated Reumostatics, or the 
equiliber of fluidity. Moreover, a fluid will rush into a vacue 
with the velocity which it would acquire in falling through the 
height which there would be of it, above such ingress, if all that 
is found so above were of the same density with that portion 
itself; and such, we add here, may be considered to be the 
case in regard to moderate quantities of water, but not in re- 
gard to the atmosphere above and around us. And of course, 
the density of a fluid being given, it presses, not only down- 



MECHANICS. 141 

ward, but upward, and in all directions horizontally, accord- 
ing to its height from the point where any portion of it may 
happen to be situated, and so pressing. And hence, theoreti- 
cally, any quantity of it, however small, may be made, by 
means of its mere upward pressure, to raise any weight, how- 
ever large, a result which is called the Hydrostatic, and 
might be more properly termed the Reumostatic paradox. 

Suppose you have two pieces of board, of any convenient 
size and form, and assume them to be circular, and a foot in 
diameter. Connect them together as are done the parts of a 
common bellows, by means of leather, or some flexible mate- 
rial that is impervious to the fluid now intended to be used, so 
that the top may rise a little — and an inch is enough in this 
case from the bottom one. Into the upper piece of these 
boards insert a tube somewhat higher than your head is, and 
of a convenient bore, and say of half an inch in diameter. 
Stand now upon your bellows-like apparatue, and into its 
tube pour water, or any other liquid sufficiently heavy to de- 
scend there, and the same will find its way, of course, into the 
apparatue upon which you are so standing, and will press its 
top, and yourself also, upward, provided that, in constructing 
your apparatue you have not underrated, as possibly you might 
do without a word of caution, the pressure which it will have 
to bear in this case. 

(131.) Given liquids are generally unidense, and the pres- 
sure of our common atmosphere upon them may be con- 
sidered, perhaps, as counterbalancing the resistance it offers 
to them while flowing within it. The term Hydraulics, com- 
pounded of Hydor, water, and Aula, a tube, is applied to the 
conducting of water in tubes. Convenience, or rather neces- 
sity requires names for things, and thus the term Hydron is 
applied to the erect tube from the side of which the water is 
made to issue in this case for use. I think of no liquid just 
at this moment that is much compressible. Water is admitted 
to be a little, and but very little so, and hence it may be forced 
into a receptacle, and thus made to raise a great weight, or to 
occasion a great pressure ; and hence the Hydrostatic Press, 
or Burmah's press, which is common among us. 

(132.) I am looking for a place somewhere here under this ge- 
neral head of operative mechanics for throwing in a word about 
obtaining alcohol from fermented liquors, and let it come here. 
The process of distillation is rather mechanical than chimicah 
Alcohol boils at 173° F— Graham=78±° C, while water does 
so at 100° C. " Therefore keep the heat below 100° C in 
the still, and the former will come over, leaving the water and 



- 4& PHYSICS. 

dregs behind. But this alcohol requires to be rectified from 
the vegetable oils, &c, which are apt to come over with it ; 
and this is done by mixing powdered charcoal with it and 
redistilling it. 

In proof that alcohol exists ready formed in fermented 
liquors, hang up a quantity of any such liquor in a bladder, 
and the alcohol, as fast as it becomes vapor, and it will do so 
slowly, much below its boiling point, will be drawn, by its 
regente ethere, through the tissues of that bladder into the 
surrounding atmosphere, as any other gas would be in the 
same predicament, leaving the water and dregs behind. In- 
close this bladder in a glass case, and the vapor in question 
will become condensed upon its interior sides, and be found 
very pure and strong alcohol. The little vapor which will 
naturally arise from the water in the bladder will be drawn 
in the same manner through it, but the quantity of the same 
will be too small to affect much the alcohol. And remember 
it is not the water or alcohol, as such, but their respective 
vapors, that are thus drawn through the tissues of this blad- 
der. 

{b) There is much of the chimical in cookery, as well as in 
the preparation, and even in the administration of medicines 
— in the preparation, applying and fixing of dyes and paints — 
in preparing a mash for distillation — and in brewing malted 
liquors. The contents of the grain or other vegetable sub- 
stance here used must be made, first, to be converted to sac- 
chare, if not already so, and then that sacchare undergoes 
the alcohoHc fermentation, which has been explained. 

(c) Vegetable fiber is bound together by what is called a resi- 
nous gum. Exposed to the atmosphere this gum becomes 
slowly decomposed, and so disappears ;and in bleaching the 
same is partly decomposed and partly dissolved by calea 
generally, though sodea is sometimes used here in part. 
Upon each of the above subjects many treatises are extant-, 
and to the same we refer the reader. 

(133.) We pass to Aeromechanics (127); and here we 
must speak of our atmosphere. Is weight, and the same ap- 
pears from the height to which it presses another fluid of 
known gravity into a vacant tube, is about fifteen pounds for 
every square inch of its base ; and hence the rationeality of 
pumping water from any founiain. Our atmosphere presses 
mercury about two and a half, and water about thirty-four feet 
high in a vacue ; though it becomes lighter than this circum- 
stance indicates, according to the quantity of aqueous vapor, 
and heavier, according to that of carboneoxatubi that may 



MECHANICS. 143 

chance to be in it. And furthermore, its parts become less 
and less dense according to the height at which they are 
found above the surface of the earth. Were it pressed down, 
so as to be all as dense as it is here upon the earth, it would 
become only about five miles high ; though it refracts light at 
the elevation of about forty-six miles ; and that is the greatest 
distance to which it has been traced, by any means, upward. 
As a body in falling to the earth, from the height of five miles 
above us, would acquire a velocity of about eighty rods, or 
one-fourth of a mile, for a second of time, so atmospheric air, 
considered as five miles high, must rush into a vacue with the 
same rapidity. And steam or any gas will rush into a vacue 
proportionably more rapid than this is, accordingly as its 
pressure is greater than that of our atmosphere. And besides 
all this, the mere elasticity of steam, or of any heated gas, is 
found, in practice, to increase this velocity considerably ; and 
hence the rationeality of the well known advantage of using 
steam expansively. 

(134.) It is only of the Elasticity of gases that we are to 
speak at this time ; for, considered as mere fluids, they have 
been already treated of under the head of reumomechanics ; 
and of this elasticity we shall now say a few words. It will 
appear from the parallelogram of forces which the reader of a 
work designedly so condensed as this is, must be presumed 
to be able to draw for himself, or to find elsewhere, that the 
direct force of the wind upon the sail of a vessel has but little 
effect, comparatively speaking, in sending such vessel ahead 
at sea, and I think Arnott, who speaks generally well upon 
mechanical force, is not sufficiently clear in this case. The 
wind is elastic ; and rebounds with the same force with 
which it strikes the sail ; and it is this force of reflection 
which is principally concerned in urging forward through the 
water the vessel to which that sail belongs. 

(b) Let any fluid 
elastic or not so, run 
through the straight in- 
terior tube represented 

/ ) * d\^ ^-- -~_J ft / in tnis % ure > i nt <> any 
(» (a o _: ~ b v) a\ other one, elastic or not 

so, and there will be no 
gain or loss of its velo- 
city. The air of our 
atmosphere, for exam- 
ple, will recoil before it, to be sure, as here represented, 
though the same will return again, and the ultimate result 
will be the same, I should think, as it would be if the air 




144 



PHl'SICS. 



were not present at all ; but any fluid is retarded while run- 
ning from the smaller, and accelerated while issuing from 
the larger end of a conic tube into an elastic mediue ; and 
the reason of this becomes obvious, from the mere inspection 
of this figure. In the one case it is pressed forward c e, 
c' e', into the vacuy occasioned by the recoil of the mediue, 
and in the other backward, n b, ri b. 

Newton made many experiments in this case, and labored 
hard to perceive the cause of what he there witnessed, " and 
died without the sight." Nor am I aware of any demonstra- 
tion of it extant. Nor have I ever met with a solitary indivi- 
dual who understood it ; and yet it is obvious. The air re- 
tards the water at the smaller end of the tube by pressing in 
the direction c e, c' e' y and accelerates it at the larger by press- 
ing in the direction n b, n' b. 

(c) Blow into the tube represented in Fig. 10, and the elastic 

air will recoil, and permit 

10 the water to come over in 

this siphon. Put your 

ringer upon one end of 

a siphon, and thrust the 

other suddenly into water, 

and the air in that siphon 

will recoil and permit the 

water to rise a little, and 

thus to come over within 

too great. Fit one tube 

them be nearly in contact with each 

and let steam issue from the outer one 




not 



it, provided the elevation is 
into another, and let 
other at one extremity, 
at the extremity where they are nearly in contact, and it will 
occasion a vacue there, so that water will rise if permitted to 
do so, in the interior tube, and issue from it. Set a tube into 
water, and blow over its top, and you will occasion a vacue 
there ; and the water will consequently rise more or less in 
your tube. Lay a sheet of paper from one to another body, 
two books if you please, and blow beneatli it, and the air re- 
coils, leaving a partial vacue there ; and your paper will be 
pressed downward by the air above it. When steam issues 
from beneath a safety valve it occasions a vacue there ; and 
the air above presses that valve downward into its seat ; so 
that safety valves are often worse than useless ; for the mor% 
powerful the steam is within the boiler, the closer they are 
sometimes made to sir. in their place. It is by means of this 
vacue that a small body may be made to dance upon the top 
of an ascending jet of water, and a shot upon the top of a quill 



MECHANICS. 145 

that is blown into by the mouth. In short, it explains many 
phenomenoes in our atmosphere, which are generally con- 
sidered as very great enigmas. We shall speak of it again 
under the head of Aerologia, which will be a subdepartment 
of Georyctology. 

(135.) The air of our atmosphere vibrates upon the appa- 
ratue auditory of animals, and thus produces the sensation of 
sound. And here is the place for the whole subject of 
Acoustics, of which Musics are a subdepartment ; though 
meledious sounds may remain, where we have already put 
them, under the general bead of language and the minor one 
of retorics. And yet the collocation of characters or notes for 
indicating tones is purely mechanical. 

(b) Nature gives voice and hearing to the higher animals, and 
especially to man ; and we must take them as we find them, 
asking no questions why they are so and not otherwise. Any 
person, attempting for the first time to raise his voice gradual- 
ly from one melodious tone to another, will be likely to pro- 
ceed thus: 1 — 2 — 3 4 — 5 — 6 7, making the intervals 

betwixt 3 and 4, and 6 and 7, each once and a half as great 
as is either of the others. And he finds that the second 
sounds badly, the third tolerably well, the fourth very well, 
and the seventh very badly with the first one. After many 
experiments he discovers, rather accidentally than otherwise, 
that, by falling a full tone or grade from 7, he comes upon a 
sound which he does not readily distinguish from the first or 
basic one, except in its acuteness ; and still this is not the 
same sound which he made at. 6 ; and thus he learns that he 
has unconsciously risen a tone and a half from 6 to 7. He 
re-examines his other sounds and perceives that he had made 
a tone and a half betwixt 3 and 4 also. He tries again to 
ascend only one full tone from 3 to 4 and does not succeed. 
Well, then he makes half a tone at 3 ; as follows : 1 — 2 — 3 
-4 — -5 — 6 — 7-8 ; and thus lie has a semitone betwixt 3 and 
4, and also betwixt 7 and 8, which he now calls the octave ; 
and his former fourth is now the fifth to his basic sound. 
The ancients met with the same difficulty ; but they seem 
not to have obviated it in any tolerable manner. And all ex- 
perience proves that the human voice will rise or fall two 
equal grades and then a grade and a half; and cannot divide 
the above octave into any number of equal parts. 

(136.) As a given string vibrates in rapidity inversely as 

the length of the part of it that is made to do so, all the twelve 

semitones of this octave may be indicated theoretically, 

though they cannot be sounded practically by it. Stringed 

13 



146 PHYSICS. 

instruments must be tuned by the ear of the performer upon 
them. We repeat the above substantially in other words. 
The human voice can make but four distinct and natural mu- 
sical sounds ; the 1st, 2d and 3d, and major 5th ; and then it 
can repeat the same upon a higher or lower key, or with more 
or less acuteness ; and our octave is mostly artificial ; being 
made up of the first strain, together with a semitone, after the 
third sound, and of two notes of the second strain, with a 
semitone added ; so that the 5th, 6th and 7th differ from the 
1st, 2d and 3d, principally in being more acute than they are ; 
but, in consequence of their relative position, the first are gene- 
rally considered as being wholly distinct from the others. 

( ] 37.) Upon etheromechanics we have now something to say. 
A particle of calore in space vibrates upon one that is in the 
external surface of your cornea ; and this upon one in the 
thickness, and this latter upon one in the interior surface of 
that cornea, and this latter upon one in the humors of your 
eye, and so onward from one to the next particle, backward 
to your optic nerve, and perhaps more or less along and with- 
in that nerve, and so causes to you the sensation of vision ; 
and remember that nothing enters your eye in this case. 
These lines of vibrating particles which we here call rays, are 
refracted, as explained above, three times on their passage 
through the eye, and are thus made to cross each other, and 
to form an inverted image upon the Retina, an expansion of 
the optic nerve at the back part of the eye. iVnd, in Brewster's 
optics you will find a satisfactory explanation why this image 
does not appear inverted to the subject. We raise our eyes 
to catch those rays, which, entering at the top of the pupil, 
are refracted to the bottom of the Retina ; and we turn our 
eyes to the right to catch those rays which, entering at the 
right side of the pupil, are refracted to the left side of the Re- 
tina ; and by this motion of our eye, it is, that we are governed 
in regard to the real position of objects that we see, and not 
by the appearance of their image upon our retina. That 
organ recognizes no up or down, right or left in this case. 

(138.) A [ew words let us add in this connection respect- 
ing what we shall here denominate Specterfacture, or the 
process of making and preserving spectres. And 1 mean 
here what is usually called photography ; a bad name for it, 
however, because, strictly speaking, the term just mentioned 
implies not what actually takes place in the process under 
consideration, but the description or delineation of light. And 
beside all this, the term in question, as usually understood, 
involves an erroneous theory, for there is no light, in the cor- 



MECHANICS. 147 

rect sense of that word, concerned in the case ; or, at any 
rate, light does not appear to be, in any sense of the word, 
an indispensable requisite here. The appellation of Dague- 
rotype, which consists mostly of the name of its lucky dis- 
coverer, is a better one than photography for it. How is it, 
that amid the proper circumstances you see your own face, 
or the image of it, when you look at a mirror ? To this 
question we shall reply, 'notwithstanding it has been fully 
answered in the course of the present work, that a particle of 
calore in your face, acts upon its neighboring one in the 
space immediately before it, and so causes that one to have 
the same property, character, quality, or tone, which it has 
itself; and this neighbor transmits the same vibration to the 
next one, and so onward to the mirror before you, so {.hat 
the particles of calore in the surface of the mirror have the 
same affection, or whatever else it may be called, that the 
original one, of which we have just been speaking, in your 
face, possesses ; and this same particle in the surface of your 
mirror returns the vibration designated here to the retina of 
"your eye. 

Now can we fix upon the surface of our mirror these parti- 
cles of calore which are thus found to be vibrating there in 
unison with those in the objects in front of them ? or rather, 
can we preserve that vibration itself? If we can do so, then 
it will be made to return to any one who properly attends to 
it, and will thus remind him of the object which was the ori- 
ginal cause of it. Experiments prove that, amid the proper 
conditions, the vibrations of which we are speaking may be 
retained indefinitely. And a polished surface of silver is the 
best thing hitherto tried for this purpose. And the proper 
form of our silver is that of a very thin plate upon another 
one, not more than the tenth of an inch thick, of cuper. Let 
the vapor of iode come to this polished surface of silver, and 
we shall have there, first, a thin film or coat of silveriodito, 
(Sil. I.) ; and then upon this film a little pure iode, which 
does not combine for the moment with that silver. Upon this 
iode let the vapor of brome come, and we shall have there a 
small quantity of Iodebromitoq, (I. Br.), which will be more 
stable than the iode alone would have been there. Upon 
this surface so prepared let the rays from any object be con- 
centrated by means of proper lenses, and the particles which 
will be thus made to vibrate, as already, explained, will be 
entangled and detained there in the same state of vibration. 
To this surface thus conditioned, let the vapor of mercure 
come, and we shall have, instead of the silverodito just 



148 PHYSICS. 

mentioned, Silvermercurito there, (Sil. Mer.). And the vi- 
brating particles under consideration, of calore, will remain 
in this last mentioned compound, and be acting there as they 
recently did in the silveriodito above spoken of. Now re- 
move this iode, as you may do in more ways than one, and 
your work is finished. Such is one among the various me- 
thods to which operators resort in *this business of specter- 
facture. Even the vapor of water is found to entangle and 
detain the particles of calore, and thus to preserve the spec- 
tre for a short time here. And furthermore, let us now add 
that these vibrations are found to exist betwixt any two sub- 
stances, even where no light appears ; so that the image of 
one may be, amid the proper circumstances, impressed upon 
another article in the dark. Too much operation of the sun 
upon the iode, however, enables it to combine with the silver 
so as not to retire wholly before the mercure in this case ; 
and so our surface, as well as the spectre upon it, will be 
more or less brown or reddish. 

(139.) Respecting bionomechanics (127) we have now. 
something to offer ; and here, and especially in the higher 
biones, five, and only five, senses appear: 1st, or the one 
that we shall mention first at this moment, Taction, or feel- 
ing, where stereomechanics are concerned ; 2d, Audition, or 
hearing, where aeromechanics are so ; 3d, Vision, or see- 
ing, where etheromechanics appear ; and 4th and 5th, Gus- 
tue, or tasting, and Olfactue, or smelling, where both hylabia 
and etheromechanics are obvious ; for in these two last men- 
tioned cases the substance, whether solid, liquid, or gaseous, 
that is smelt or tasted will come under the head of hylabia- 
mechanics, while the sensation of smelling or tasting is 
caused by the calore of that substance acting upon that of 
the smelling or tasting organs so affected. 

We are all affected more or less by the words, looks, and 
even by the will of those around us. And especially some 
will affect other individuals by manipulation. The constitu- 
ents, vipo and reno, of the specific calore of any bione, and 
especially of animales, and certainly of man, can be inter- 
changed with those of many, though possibly not with all 
other substances. And hence a person may be, and some- 
time is, attracted by the vipo which is occasionally found to 
be moving around and within a piece of steel ; or, in other 
words, by the Indicevipote, or magnetic needle. And hence 
too, an individual may be attracted to a stronger one than his- 
self is, and especially if the temperament of such stronger 
one is considerably variant from his own. And all this too 



MECHANICS. 149 

has been understood practically, though by no means theo- 
retically, among mankind, almost every where, for thousands 
of years, if not as long as they have existed at all. The lay- 
ing on of hands in the cure of diseases was practised among 
the ancient Egyptians, of whom Paul the Christian probably 
learnt it, though none of them understood the rationeality of 
the effect thus occasioned. 

The mesmerised person is passive. His nerves are actua- 
ted by the specific calore of his manipulator ; and thus he is 
made to echo a Daguerotype likeness of the other's mind. 
He utters much that his manipulator, or the one put in con- 
nection with him, has partially, and perhaps even wholly for- 
gotten, but says nothing of his own. In short, as a vibration 
from external objects affects our optic nerves, so a vibration 
from the nerves of one may be made to affect and to actuate 
those of another. This is wonderful, to be sure, and even 
more so than what is usually pretended in the case before us. 
Truth is often more romantic than fiction. The respective 
calores of intimate friends are much interchanged ; of peo- 
ple generally, less ; of strangers to each other, still less so. 
A person may mesmerise and tame a ferocious animal, whe- 
ther of his own specie or not so. The lower animals mes- 
merise each othe-r, and even man himself. Nor are even 
the vegetals and minicoes exempt from this predicament — 

All are but parts of one stupendous whole, 
Whose body nature is, and God the soul. 

The stronger animal mesmerises the weaker one, and yet 
both are affected in the act. Marry you opposite in tempera- 
ment, disposition, complexion, &c, as well as in sex ; and 
still you should not go too far out 'of your race, nor become 
allied to great constitutional disease of body or mind. 

I will here suppose a case which I believe to be possible. 
A vibration of the kind under consideration, or, in other 
words, a strong affection exists betwixt the mother and her 
child. Leaving that child at home she goes abroad — and 
suddenly a strange uneasiness comes upon her — she must 
return home, for something, she" is fully persuaded, is wrong 
there — and home she goes at almost any sacrifice — and, lo ! 
her child is dead ! The vibration of which we are speaking 
had ceased ; and that cessation was the real cause of her 
being, as she had been, so affected, though she herself be- 
lieves not in any physical cause for such an extraordinary 
feeling, but that some guardian angel had been kindly giving 

13* 



150 PHYSICS. 

her thus a presentiment of the great calamity which had so 
fallen upon her. 

Vipo passes along the nerves, and reno along the muscles 
of an animal ; and where these two etheres come together 
they occasion a contraction, and consequent muscular action. 
In his treatise on Mechanics, Gregory makes a few remarks 
upon animal mechanics, and notices the difference betwixt 
trotting and pacing. In pacing the animal uses both legs 
upon the same side of him at once ; in trotting he uses the 
right forward with the left hind one, and vice versa. 

(140.) For the specific calore of biones in general we shall 
have the term Etherebionico ; for that of vegetals in particu- 
lar, we shall have Etherebotanico ; for that of animales, 
Etherezoico ; for the electrician we shall have Etherosaxiste ; 
for the action of ethere, Etherosaxe ; for an animal magne- 
tizer, Zooetherosaxiste ; and for animal magnetism, Zooe- 
therosaxe. And upon this last mentioned subject we have 
a few words more to add in this connection. And let our 
circuity be excused when we say that as Phrenologia aims 
at the whole character of any thing to w r hich it may have re- 
ference at all, it must be more general in its import than 
Pathology is ; and pathology is more so than Nasology can 
be properly considered as being ; and to become a nosolo- 
giste one should have some knowledge of the structure, as 
well as of the economy, such as the nutrition, motion and 
propagation, &c, of what is subject to disease ; or, in other 
words, of vegetales as well as of animales. And, of course, 
he should be an osteologiste,myologiste, neurologiste, splank- 
nologiste, and even an etherosaxiste ; and should be able to 
recognise the analogies to what is here indicated, even in 
the lowest of biones. He should understand the tempera- 
ment, under which general head may be found I think, the 
instinctues, passions, and propensities of given subjects. 
And what is this temperament 1 For the moment I aver, if 
I do not actually prove, it to be nothing more or less than a 
certain state or condition of the specific calore of the indivi- 
dual where it may happen to be found ; and, accordingly, we 
speak of the temperament or temper of a human being as well 
as of an edged tool. And to a disordered state of this tem- 
perament, or specific calore, may be referred, undoubtedly, 
every ailment to which biones are subject, included not any 
bruises, breaks, or losses, but the pain that may happen to 
attend them. The specific calore of the somnambulator is 
affected by the food he has taken, or by the position in which 
he has been, or by some other circumstance ; and remarks 



PLAXETOLOGY. 151 

not widely different from these may be made, undoubtedly, 
respecting maniacs, properly so called. Their specific calore 
is somehow affected. And perhaps we can form some con- 
ception how it is that a cat or snake charms, and thus catches 
a bird, a fact too well known to be disputed here. It is pos- 
sible, however, that in order to explain all the phenomenoes 
of life and intelligence, we may have to call in the aid of 
other principles beside common ethere ; but certainly we 
shall not go in search of such principles till we find occasion 
for them. Upon all these points the world will become wiser, 
very probably, as it grows older than it now is ; and to some 
of them we shall advert again hereafter, under the head of 
bionologia. 

PLANE I'OLOGY. 

• 

(141.) We pass to planetology (46), which, according to 
the arrangement here made of nature, or, in other words, of 
the sciences, becomes the third and the last grand division of 
physics, and which consists of the treatment of material 
bodies, or collections of materia, considered as such in the 
regions of space, and which involves much of mechanics and 
chimistry, as well as of mathematics. 

In mechanics we have shown (117, 118) that materia 
attracts, or causes to be attracted, materia, according to its 
own inertia directly, and to the square of its distance from 
the materia so attracted inversely. And now let us give our 
attention to the accompanying diagrama, tig. 11. It is in- 
tended to represent a mass of gaseous matter, which is being 
gradually and slowly condensed in the regions of space, or, 
in other words, all its particles are tending or gravitating to- 
ward its center, a necessary physical consequence of the 
condition in which we have here supposed it to be. This 
pressure at every side of it will cause it to rotate, though the 
direction of that rotation will be, so far, at least, as we can 
perceive, entirely accidental. And the necessity for such 
rotation we find exemplified in many instances around us. 
We percieve it in the ripples and whirlpools that often attract 
our notice in moving water, and also in the whirlwinds that 
occur now and then upon the surface of the earth ; and still 
again in those larger gyrations which storms in our atmos- 
phere are apt to become. In all these cases some portions 
of the fluid concerned here acquire, and no matter at this 
moment in what particular manner, a tendency to some point 
within itself; and this tendency effects the gyration of which 
we are speaking. 



152 



PHYSICS. 




(142.) Our mass of materia condenses from a to c, and the 
materia at c has thus acquired, by falling thither, some motion 
or velocity around the common center, n ; but a part of this 
motion it will have to yield up to the common mass, as the 
materia at n, being more dense originally, or soon becoming 
more so, than is that at o, will be consequently, not likely to 
contract so much, and thus not likely to acquire so much 
velocity, during the same time, around the common axe, as 
the materia at a does. And hence the exterior portion will 
have always a tendency to move faster than does the central 
one of this body or mass of gaseous materia that is contract- 
ing in size, and thus rotating at the same time. And further- 
more, such a body will contract much in the direction of its 
axe of rotation, and thus become something like a wheel ; or, 
in other words, it will be what is called an oblate spheriode, 
being elevated at its equator and depressed at its poles. Our 
mass becomes more and more spheroidic as it continues to 
condense, and the rapidity of its rotation to increase, till final- 
ly its exterior particles have centifugal force enough to be 
thrown off from it ; and yet they are held to it, and thus pre- 
vented from being so, we suppose, by the attraction of cohe- 
sion. And at this juncture, we may add here in passing, that 



PLANETOLOGY. 



153 



what its equatoreal particles have gained in altitude they have 
lost in gravity, so that its axe will be just half as long as its 
equatoreal diameter is. 

The velocity of rotation in the body under consideration 
increases, we continue to suppose, till the central or mediue 
particles of the external ring, c d kf 2 1, &c, of the dia- 
grama before us, cease to have any weight ; or, in other 
words, till their centrifugal force exactly balances their gra- 
vity ; and the ring in question is now broken off, in conse- 
quence of its centrifugal force, as represented in our dia- 
grama. The particles that are situated exterior to the mediue 
line, c d, &c, would fly off in consequence of their centrifu- 
gal force, were it not that they are held by the attraction of 
cohesion to the neutral mediue just above mentioned. And 
so, were it not for the same attraction, the particles interior to 
the ones at c d, &c, would fall to the interior mass, for they 
have not of themselves centrifugal force enough to be re- 
moved from it. And of course it is the attraction of cohesion 
that keeps the particles of our ring together, the mediue por- 
tion of it being just balanced betwixt its own gravity and its 
centrifugal force, and having, consequently, no tendency to 
move either from or toward the main body, from whence, as 
already explained, it has been recently parted. Furthermore, 
this ring will not be likely to carry along with itself a due 
proportion of gases that do not strongly adhere to it, and are 
not confined within its substance. Having been for sometime 
at the surface of the body, from whence it has arisen, it has 
become cooler, and thus, perhaps, denser than is the mass 
beneath it ; and so it will not carry with itself a due propor- 
tion of reno. 

Any portion of such gases that are interior to the mediue 
line above specified, and also at liberty, will certainly remain 
behind the ring in this case, while any such gases that are 
exterior to that line will leave the body before the ring does 
so, though they may possibly find their way afterward to the 
mass of materia of which that ring consists ; an important 
consideration, of which we shall hereafter make, perhaps, 
some use. 

If one side of this ring is not heavier than the other is, the 
ring itself will be likely to touch the main body again, at some 
point, and thus to be broken to pieces ; the part not touching 
the body becoming a mass by itself, while the, touching one 
will be soon thrown off again, and thus become a mass sepa- 
rate from the other here mentioned. At all events our ring 
will resolve itself into one or more globular bodies. Gene- 



154 PHYSICS. 

rally, it will have but one center of attraction, and become 
only one mass, though possibly it may give rise to several 
distinct bodies. 

(b.) We may look in another manner at the condition of 
this ring, and we shall still perceive that it must certainly 
break somewhere, as would do a heated band of ferre, or any 
other metal which is put around a body that will not yield, 
as such band cools and contracts. As our ring condenses its 
diameter cannot diminish in length, for its motion, which, 
bear in mind, it will still retain around the original mass, will 
prevent that no less effectually than the hardest substance 
within could do. It must, then, break ; and suppose it does 
so directly opposite to c ; and then it will contract itself to 
the same point, and become there a globular mass around it ; 
or, in other words, the materia of which this ring consists 
will all gravitate to the point in question. The truth of this 
assertion may not be obvious to every one at first thought, 
perhaps, but a little reflection will show, I think, that the 
case must be necessarily so. 

The globular mass into which our ring of materia resolves 
itself, will commence to rotate in the same general direction, 
though never, perhaps, in exactly the same plane where it is 
found to revolve ; for as any such ring contracts and becomes 
concentrated, it will have, very naturally, at first, the form 
somewhat of the felloe of a wheel. And suppose the rings c 
and e to be, for the moment, both in one ; and suppose e, which, 
bear in mind, has less motion than has any particle exterior 
to it in the same ring, to be, as it must be in fact, tending to- 
ward c, while this same c, which has a greater motion than 
has any particle interior to it, is tending toward the same e 
above mentioned. And the same may be said of 1 and 3 
there ; or, in other words, they are gravitating toward each 
other, and the consequence will be that this tendency will be 
a little to the right, in the one case, while in the other it will 
be somewhat to the left. And so our felloe-shaped mass of 
materia will turn more or less to the left at its exterior side, 
and to the right at its interior one ; and it will thus com- 
mence, very naturally, to rotate in the same general direction 
where it revolves, though seldom, if ever, in exactly the plane 
of that direction, as observation finds to be true, so far as it 
has hitherto gone, in regard to the bodies of the solar systema. 
And a little reflection will show, that as. our mass of vapor 
is being conglomerated, its axe of rotation will vary, though 
seldom, if ever, so much as ninety degrees from the position 
which may be presupposed, according f o our preset^, view of 



planetologY. 155 

the subject. And let me add, in this connection, that proba- 
bly the reader may be, as I am myself, a little doubting here, 
whether to call this tendency of e to c, and of c to c, gravita- 
tion or cohesion — so closely do these two mechanic powers 
approach each other. 

(143.) Now take a circular piece of stiff paper, sufficiently 
large for the purpose, and having made at its center a hole 
wide enough, through it, put your fist into the same aperture, 
and then your knuckles and wrist will represent the poles 
of the great body from which this ring is supposed to have 
been thrown, and around which it must continue to move. 
And free ethere from either of these poles may draw it to any 
position without affecting its velocity, perhaps, not only while 
it remains such ring, but even after it may have assumed, as 
we have shown it will tend to do, the globular form. And 
so we obviate the great objection which has hitherto existed 
against the suggestion of the sagacious Laplace, that the 
bodies in the regions around us were thrown from each other ; 
for we assign an adequate cause for their moving, as they are 
generally found to do, more or less obliquely across the equator 
of the one around which they revolve. And the same thing we 
showed in chimislry general analytic ethereal, as well as the 
reason why the comets, that appear from time to «time, are 
accelerated, as some of them appear to be, in their move- 
ments. As the ring in question is drawn considerably, the 
great central body will be so a little in the opposite direction, 
and thus made to throw off a second ring to the right or the 
left of the previous one. 

In mechanics (117) we have shown that essentia, a gene- 
ral term for both ethere and inerte, must be necessarily co- 
extensive with space and co-eternal with duration itself; and 
chimistry teaches us abundantly that all the matter, which, 
bear in mind, is a compound of inerte and ethere, that has 
any where an existence, is not likely to be, or to have been 
ever, at one and the same time, in either the solid, liquid, or 
gaseous state. While one mass of it is solid another is li- 
quid, and a third is vaporous ; and each of these maintains its 
condition, as long as it does so at all, at the expense of the 
others. Amid the proper circumstances, however, the reno 
of the vapor, tired of its present connection, and wishing to 
change it, passes to the vipo of the liquid or solid ; and so it 
has ever been, and will ever be doing in the areat laboratory 
of nature, as well as in that of the chimiste, properly so called. 
Vapor condenses to rain in our atmosphere, and its reno goes 
to the earth ; and why should not a similar event occur in 
the regions of space ? 



156 



PHYSICS. 



(144.) We suppose now, that at some remote epocha in the 
past, and say a billion j r ears ago, all the bodies abroad in 
the heavens, within the sphere of our vision, which may be 
reasonably supposed to be not more that ten thousand billion 
miles in diameter, were in the state of vapor ; and that, at 
the distance of a trillion miles from the center of this vapor, 
was that of a systema of bodies similar to what we now see 
during a cloudless night. The vipo of these bodies becomes 
avidous for reno, and the reno of our vapor is tired of its long 
existing connection, and is ready to join that vipo, and com- 
mences to pass thither accordingly ; and that too very rapidly, 
as it usually does in the first instance, when it passes at all 
from one to another mass of materia. 

(5.) Those bodies begin to be transformed by this reno to 
vapor ; while our mass of vapor, the existence of which we 
supposed above, condenses, in consequence of the loss of it, 
and thus commences to rotate, and to throw off rings of ma- 
teria, which assume the globular form in the plane of the 
galacte, a lucid zone that encircles the heavens, crossing the 
earth's equator at an angle of about 70 degrees, or making an 
angle with the meridian of— say 20 degrees ; but where the 
ultimate nucle, the great center of the whole of this original 
mass, is now to be found, is more than the wisest of us can 
say. Many of those rings, or the bodies into which they 
became concentrated, and also their primary one, are drawn, 
by their respective regente etheres, more or less from their 
first position, so that we now find stars in all directions around 
us, as well as in that of the galacte above mentioned. These 
secondary bodies, that first originated from the great primary 
one, became primaries in their turn, and threw from their- 
selves other ones still, which beeame, in the usual way, plan- 
ets around them, till finally the materia, of which the solar 
systema consists was thrown from some one of them. This 
mass of materia commenced, as the others here mentioned 
did, to rotate, and that too somewhat nearly, though probably 
not exactly in the present plane of the sun's equator : we say 
here not exactly, probably because the same ethere, which 
affected the original course of all his attendants considerably, 
must have affected the position of his own axe a little. 

(c.) Our great mass of vapor continues to condense, and 
thus to contract in size, and consequently the velocity of its 
rotation increases, till at. length it comes to turn over once in 
three thousand years, and then it threw off a ring that became 
a certain comet, whose periodic time has been conjectured to 
be of that length ; and when it rotated once in five hundred 



PLANK'TOLOGY. 15/ 

years, it threw off from itself another ring of materia, which 
also became a comet whose revolutionary period is supposed 
to be about that long. It goes on condensing, and when it 
rotated once in 160 years, it threw off a ring which became 
the recently discovered planet Neptune ; and when it rotated 
once in 84 years, it threw off the planet Uranus ; and this 
latter threw off at the proper time, and in the same manner 
above described, his satelites or secondaries, which have 
experienced, it may be here added, such powerful ethereal 
action as to be made to move around their primary in a retro- 
grade manner. 

(d.) At length, rotating once in about twenty-nine and a 
half years, the mass in question threw off Saturn, which pro- 
duced his satelites in the same way as did Herschel his. 
And subsequently, when it rotated once in about twelve 
years, Jupiter left it and became independent, and generated, 
in the usual way, his family of satelites ; and finally, having 
thrown off something like a six-hundredth part of itself in 
planets and comets, the mass in question contracts, and set- 
tles down to what we now call the sun, and which will doubt- 
less become, in common with all his attendants, one day, 
reduced again to vapor, and thus reformed into separate 
bodies, and so onward forever ; being changed, after a long 
duration, from one to the other of these conditions, as the 
case respecting them has probably always been. 

(145.) For Jupiter we perceive that, a great mass of mate- 
ria was thrown off, as above explained, at once ; and hence 
we may infer, perhaps, that the same was very tenacious or 
cohesive. Saturn is the next less than Jupiter, and Herschel 
than Saturn is, in quantity of materia ; and then monies the 
Earth, and then Venus, and then Mars, and then Mercury : 
and finally, the small planets, Pallas, Ceres, Juno, Vesta, and 
Astroa,. which have been recently discovered, and which are 
situated betwixt Mars and Jupiter, and near to each other. 

In the case of these five small planets of which we now 
are speaking, a ring might have been nearly formed and then 
broken in the act of being thrown off, as a grindstone may be 
made to fly in pieces by a sufficient rapidity of rotation. But 
when an entire ring, one side of which is heavier than the 
other is, has once come off in the case under consideration, it 
will not be apt to break in more places than one, so that the 
planets in question may have been thrown off in separate 
rings ; or there may have been only one ring, which broke 
into five pieces in being parted from the original mass ; and 
I perceive but little preference in choice among these altema •• 

14 



158 



PHYSICS. 



lives. It will follow in either case that the materia of which 
they consist was not, at the epocha in question, so cohesive 
as was that of Jupiter or Saturn. Their separation could not 
have taken place after they became as dense and compact as 
they now probably are. To effect such a rupture would re- 
quire, as may be easily calculated, a mass of gunpowder in a 
state of ignition, and at the center of the original planet, pro- 
vided there ever was such a body in this case, as large as 
either of them is, and ten or fifteen times as powerful as is 
that to which we are accustomed. Separated by an explo- 
sion ! as some have gravely suggested ! Nonsense ! 

(b.) When the sun rotated once a year anomalistic, that is, 
once in the time during which the earth now completes its 
orbit, he threw off from hisself a ring of materia, which be- 
came this last mentioned planet ; and when the latter rotated 
once in about twenty seven and a half days, the time during 
which the Moon now completes her orbit, she left it and be- 
came independent, as all the heavenly bodies far or near did 
so> but the tendency in her toward the usual rotation was 
counteracted by the great attraction of the sun and earth upon 
her, so that she rotates but once during one of her revolutions 
around the Earth, and the same effect appears to have taken 
place in regard to most other satelites of our solar systems. 

Being much in quantity, compared with the earth, the ma- 
teria of the Moon must have been considerably cohesive and 
tenacious when it left us, what ever it may be now. 

(146.) The planets and comets, being thrown from the 
Earth, and having generally a rotatory motion upon their 
axe, as well as a revolving one around their center of attrac- 
tion, assumed, as already explained, what they are now found 
to have — the spheric, or, more properly, the spheroidic form ; 
and condensing, at the same time, evolved reno ; and hence 
they must have become, for a long period in the first instance, 
warmer and warmer, throughout their whole mass. At length, 
how T ever, their ethere being set free in less abundance, and 
the planet parting with the same faster, perhaps, as its mate- 
ria became more and more dense, its surface must have become 
cooler and cooler, while its internal parts, having but little 
vent for its disengaged ethere, continued to increase in tem- 
perature, as we find the case to be in regard to the Earth. At 
present, however, a hard crust being formed upon all the 
planets, the escape of reno, and the condensation which natu- 
rally succeeds to it, are both too slow to be perceptible, per- 
haps, in any of them. As their surface is nearer than their 
center is to any other body, the former will be more attracted 



PLANETOLOGY. 159 

by neighboring masses of materia than the other is ; and 
thus, if iluid, be elevated in what is called a Tide. 

(147 ) Mars, Venus, and Mercury, rotating, as they appear 
to be, once in about a terester day, might have been expected 
to have, each of them, one or more satelites, for they seem to 
have been originally large enough, and to have rotated fast 
enough, in season to throw from theirselves portions of mate- 
ria ; but no attendants to either of these planets have been 
hitherto discovered. Venus is said to have some lofty moun- 
tains upon her, one of which is stated to be about 22 miles 
high ; and these may be due partly to the circumstance that 
the matter of which she consists had become much condensed 
and indurated before it had time to flow around and equalize 
itself to the spheric form. 

(b.) The ring that encircles Saturn is a real satelite, and 
revolves by means of its own centrifugal force, though it 
seems to be too solid to assume the globular form. This ring 
is divided, for the greater part, at least, of its circumference, 
as observers assure us, by an open space about 5,855 miles 
wide, giving rise, apparently, thus, to two distinct ones, 
though I think they must be connected together, because the 
condensation of only 5855 miles from the first to the second 
ring appears insufficient to give such second ring, which is 
stated to be about 25,000 miles in thickness, or perpendicular 
width, centrifugal force enough to come off from the main 
planet. In this ring several other smaller fissures are said to 
have been recently discovered, all of which must have been 
effected by the condensation of it. 

(c.) The materia of this ring appears to be very cohesive ; 
and so does that of Saturn hisself. It took off so much from 
his eqatoreal regions as to leave him in somewhat of a cylin- 
dric form ; and hence, from the latitude of about 43 degrees 
and 20 minutes through his center to the opposite one, is 
found, say observers, his longest diameter, 

(d.) The existence of double and triple stars which appear 
in the heavens, is due, undoubtedly, to the cohesiveness of 
the materia of which they consist. The rotation of the ori- 
ginal one became so rapid before it threw off any thing that 
it parted into two or more nearly equal portions. 

(e.) The sun rotates once in about 25 days, and a little cal- 
culation will show that there can be no planet betwixt him 
and Mercury, though one has been supposed to be there, and 
denominated Vulcan. In fact, the velocity acquired by his 
external portion since Mercury left him has been so much 
given up to his internal one that the motion of his equatoreal 



160 PHYSICS. 

regions is much less in rotation than is that of Mercury in his 
orbit. 

(148.) Let us bear in mind that every particle of materia 
is attracted more or less by every other one in existence ; 
and then we shall not be likely to expect that the orbit of any 
of the heavenly bodies, subjected as they are to continual dis- 
turbance, would be likely to remain for any length of time, 
should it ever become a perfect circle. Nor is it found to be 
so, but always an ellipse. And the body around which any- 
other one in the heavens is known to revolve appears not at 
the center, but in one of the focues of the elliptic orbit where 
such revolving body is found to move. And here mechanics 
steps in and demonstrates that the position of any body around 
which another one moves in the periphery of an ellipse by 
the force of gravitation will be always in one of the focues of 
that ellipse. 

(149.) Were the Earth's orbit circular the sun would be 
almost continually drawing the Moon a little from the earth, 
or permitting her to recede more or less from it, and thus 
causing her to describe a larger orbit, and to move slower 
around the earth than she would otherwise do ; and this effect 
may be calculated, though I shall not stop to do it here. The 
Earth's orbit, being an ellipse, the disturbance just now allu- 
ded to is still greater than it would be were that orbit circu- 
lar. As this elliplicity and consequent eccentricity of the 
Earth's orbit increases, the Moon is more and more retarded 
in her motion, and that too for the obvious reason that she 
looses more when the Earth is near the sun than she gains 
when it is farther from him. When the eccentricity of this 
orbit decreases, as now at this day, she looses proportionably 
less and less at every revolution, and thus there is a compa- 
rative acceleration in her movement; and this movment is 
now approaching to that maximue velocity which it would 
have were the Earth's orbit circular ; but even this velocity 
is less, as we have just above indicated, than it would be 
were it not for the sun's disturbance. This comparative 
acceleration of the Moon was discovered by means of the 
comparison of ancient with later eclipses ; but the cause of 
it was long a great enigma among planetologistes. This 
enigma has been solved by the great Laplace. The general 
solution of it is obvious when once pointed out, being simply 
that the Moon looses less and less in mean velocity as the 
Earth's orbit becomes less and less eccentric ; but the calcu- 
lations into which he entered for ascertaining the precise 
amount of that acceleration from time to time became a prob- 



PLANETOLOGY. 161 

lem, as complicated and difficult, to say the least of it, as any 
one that was ever wrought by man. 

(150.) The materia of the comets is evidently different 
from that of the Earth as a whole, though some kinds of it 
which are found in the latter may, and probably do, exist also 
in the former bodies. Being light, the materia of the comets 
arose to the surface of the great mass of it from whence they 
were thrown; and there it collected together in quantities, 
and that too for the same reason that any homogene substance 
does so. Becoming entangled among other kinds of materia 
it did not all rise at once as it might have otherwise done ; 
and possibly the substance of every comet, and even of every 
body in the heavens, may differ, more or less, as each stratue 
of rocks in the crust of the earth is found to do, from all other 
ones there. To ascertain the orbit of a comet is among the 
most complicated and tedious problems of any description 
known. It is done only by approximation. The process, long 
and difficult, is given in Laplace's Mechanic Celeste, and also 
in Delamber's Astronomy. 

The operator takes, or should take, with proper instruments, 
for many successive days, both morning and evening, the 
bearing from the sun of the comet in question while near its 
perihelio, and before and after it passes that point ; and the 
time of these observations should be carefully noted in order 
to enable him to ascertain how much the earth has moved 
during each interval here indicated. True, the orbit of a 
comet may be approximated from two of such observations ; 
but a greater number will serve, either directly or indirectly, 
to guide and verify the process. He takes advantage of 
what he finds demonstrated respecting the ellipse and para- 
bola, and also of the circumstance that a heavenly body 
describes in its progress equal areas in equal times, or areas 
proportional to the times occupied by it, and thus he finds a 
parabola that corresponds with his datues, and considers it as 
a part of the elliptic orbit sought. A process, we repeat, that 
is long and tedious. 

(b.) Consistently with gravitation, the train of comets can- 
not be material particles. And the suggestion that has been 
gravely made, that the rays of the sun drive off a portion of 
such comets in this form, is too ridiculous to be seriously 
noticed. Nor can there be, consistently with gravitation, any 
resisting mediue, in the regions of space, where the heavenly 
bodies move. The cause of the acceleration of comets, ag 
well as that of their trains, we have heretofore demonstrated 
jn our article upon chimistry analytic ethereal. 
14* 



162 PHYSICS. 

(151.) The eccentricity of the Earth's orbit is now dimin- 
ishing at the rate of about 40 miles a year ; and, taking a 
general bird's-eye view of the motion of the planets, I think 
that it will continue to dimish for about 1500 years, when 
the Earth's perihelio will have become advanced 90 degrees 
beyond that of Jupiter ; and that it will then commence to 
increase, and continue to do so with varied increments) for 
about 150,000 years, being, we suppose, for we cannot say 
positively here without very complicated calculations, which 
we shall not attempt to make just now, half the revolution of 
the earth's perihelio in regard to that of Jupiter. Meantime, 
however, the other planets will all have a hand, both directly 
and indirectly, in this disturbance ; and especially will Saturn, 
Herschel, and Neptune, affect Jupiter, and thus render him 
more or less able to affect the Earth, so that in this change 
of eccentricity in the Earth's orbit neither periodicity nor 
regularity is indicated, and all we can do with it is to ascer- 
tain its amount plus or minus, by observation and calculation 
from time to time, as we may have occasion for it. And re- 
marks analogous to these may be properly made respecting 
the retrogation of the Eqaledieinocteal points in the heavens, 
into which motion elements enter that are not proportional to 
the time during which they arise. This retrogradation is 
stated in our works upon planetology to be greater by 
about -455" than it was two thousand years ago, in the days 
of Hipparchus ; and consequently the tropical year is now 
about 1 i^-076 shorter than it was and had been long before 
that epocha. And this circumstance will affect plus or minus, 
and may render even retrogade the solstitial revolution of the 
Earth's perihelio. And to ascertain the exact solstitial posi- 
tion of this perihelio at any remote epocha, past or future, 
would be a problema more complicated and difficult, perhaps, 
than is either of the wies, the tracing of a comet and estima- 
ting the precise amount of the Moon's present acceleration 
above spoken of. However, we shall consider the motion of 
the Earth's perihelio to have been for a long duration passed, 
as it now is, direct, and its solstitial revolution to have been 
once in about 21,000 years, as that is the rate at which it 
is found, at this day, to be moving, a circumstance of which 
we shall make further use under the head of Georyctology. 

(152.) In regard to what are usually called meteors, we 
have now some thing to say ; and in the first place we state 
the question which has been frequently put by different indi- 
viduals : Are they bodies which have been thrown from any 
pf the volcanoes that do now or ever did exist upon the Earth 1 



PLANETOLOGY. 163 

And to the same we answer that no circumstance which 
attends them indicates to me any such origin for them. 

Again then, secondly, we ask, as others have done before 
us, Do they originate in the atmosphere above and around us 1 
And to this we answer that we perceive no cause for suspect- 
ing any such thing. 

Thirdly, then, we ask, as not a few have seriously done 
heretofore : Is it likely that any planet, after becoming suffi- 
ciently indurated and globular to be properly called such, was 
ever bursted to pieces, and thus made to give rise to the small 
ones — Pallas, Ceres, Juno, Vesta, and Astroa, now found 
betwixt Mars and Jupiter ? And to this question we answer 
promptly, No ! And our reasons for this answer we have 
given already (145) in this article on planetology. And even 
admitted such to have been the case, and that many small 
fragments of the original planet, besides the bodies just men- 
tioned, resulted from that explosion, none of them could ever 
come to the Earth, as some have supposed they might do. 
They would continue to revolve as they had previously done, 
while they constituted a portion of the original planet, around 
the sun. Should any of them happen to be thrown directly 
opposite to their original course, so as to loose their motion, 
a circumstance hardly supposable, they would fall directly to 
the sun ; and so they might encounter the dark side of the 
Earth, or pass it, at the rate of about thirty miles a second, 
where the sun would be just rising or setting upon it. 

Fourthly, then, we ask, do the meteors in question come 
from the moon? To this also we answer, No ! Were a body 
thrown from the Moon, so that the motion of the former 
should be wholly counteracted, it would fall, not to the Earth, 
but to the Sun, unless the Moon should be, at the same time, 
near, whether before or after, her full. Four times the force 
of common gunpowder ignited in a cannon would throw a 
body from the Moon, provided its course were directly toward 
the Earth, so that it would come within the attraction of the 
latter, to be sure as others have said before me, and yet such 
body would not be likely to find the Earth, but its previous 
motion would tend to give it an orbit around us. There is no 
such force, however, at the Moon or elsewhere. That of a vol- 
cano is seldom much concentrated, and consequently not often 
much percussive, and never throws bodies to a very great 
height. 

Fifthly, then — are the meteors in question secondaries, 
which left the Earth either before or after the Moon did sot 
No ! for all the materia which left the Earth before the Moon 



164 



PHYSICS. 



did would find their way to her, if to any body at all in the 
heavens ; and a little calculation which I have actually made, 
though I shall not insert it here, will show that no materia 
could have left the Earth since the Moon did so. 

Where then, sixthly, do they come ? They are masses of 
materia that were thrown from the sun just before the Earth 
was so. That is, they belonged to the same ring of materia 
from whence our Earth arose, but did not adhere to it, and so 
their centrifugal force carried them outwardly from it. And 
remember that immediately after any of these rings has left 
the great central mass, the latter contracts, throwing off noth- 
ing more till it has acquired an additional velocity, so that the 
orbit of none of these meteors can be within that of the Earth. 
And their orbit becoming elliptic, and crossing that of the 
Earth, they thus encounter our planet from time to time, and 
fall upon its interior or illuminated, as well as upon its other 
side. And the great elasticity and varying density, and ethe- 
real condition of our atmosphere are sufficient to account for 
what we observe of their movement in it. 

(b.) Possibly, but not very probably, some of these bodies 
may find their way to our Moon. They increase the mass, 
and consequently the attraction of the Earth as fast as they 
come to it ; and this increase of attraction will accelerate, 
though never perceptibly, perhaps, the Moon's velocity in her 
orbit. 

(c.) The form and motion of the heavenly bodies, having 
arisen spontaneously out of what we find to be the character 
of essentia, will change from time to time in some respects, 
though never very greatly, in the same spontaneous manner. 
What is now has been, and will be again and again, substan- 
tially, forever. There is no such thing in possibility as a 
resisting mediue, as that term is generally understood respect- 
ing the planetary spaces, though the operations of ethere do 
accelerate the comets in their orbits, and cause them to move 
in all directions around the Sun, and will eventually, doubt- 
less, remodel the material universe. 

Lord Rosse's telescope is said to resolve the nebulas in 
the heavens into distinct bodies ; and this might have been 
anticipated, for mere vapor would not be likely to radiate or 
reflect light enough to be rendered visible at their distance, 
nor even at a much less one from us. Here then is no objec- 
tion to the theory of Laplace, that the heavenly bodies were 
thrown one from another. 

(153.) The inertia of a planet which has a satelite may be 
compared with that of the Sun ; and the inertia of the satelite 
with that of its primary. 



GEOLOGY. 165 

It will be hardly necessary for me to introduce a wood cut 
here for the purpose of showing what is already well known 
and demonstrated in our scientific books, that F, the central 
force or attraction which retains a revolving body in its orbit, 
will be as V 2 -t- 0, the square of the velocity of that body divi- 
ded by its distance from its primary. And in mechanics 
we have shown that for this F, M-f-D 2 , the inertia of both 
bodies, divided by the square of their distance apart, may be 
substituted. Therefore M will be as DV 2 : or M : DV 2 : : 
m: dv 2 : or M = mDV 2 -r-dv 2 . The numerical calculations 
indicated oy this formula, M being the mass of inertia in the 
Sun, Earth, and Moon, m that of the Earth and Moon ; D 
the distance of the Earth from the Sun, V its velocity in its 
orbit, d the distance of the Moon from the Earth, and v the 
velocity in her orbit, we shall give in the next article. 

Panetology applied to the Sun is Heliology ; to the Moon, 
Selenology, &c. ; and applied to the Earth upon which we 
reside it becomes Geology, to which we now proceed. 

GEOLOGY. 

(154.) As to our planet we have to observe, that thrown, as 
heretofore (145) explained, from the great mass of materia 
which became finally our Sun, it continued to condense, and 
thus assumed the globular form, and commenced, as we have 
heretofore fully particularized, to rotate ; and when that rota- 
tion had become as often as once in about twenty-seven and 
a-half of our present days, it gave rise, in the usual manner, 
to our Moon ; and a little calculation, which we cannot stop 
to exhibit here, will show that the Earth has not thrown off 
from itself any materia since that event. 

(6.) As the condensation of our planet proceeded, its hea- 
vier particles tended, as a matter of course, toward its center, 
and so pressed the lighter ones upward ; and hence arose 
the atmosphere which now envelops it, and the water also 
which covers the greater portion of its surface, and which 
once covered, very probably, the whole of it. 

At length, after millions, perhaps, of years, the internal 
ethere becoming evolved, the fluids within, for some water as 
well as portions of various gases must have still remained 
imprisoned there, were expanded, and thus made to throw up 
elevations of earthy materia, till some of them arose above 
the surface, of the superincumbent water ; and yet the whole 
was too soft and warm for giving rise to biones, excepted, 
probably, to some few Infusortues, which may be supposed 



166 



PHYSICS. 



to have made now their appearance here. Meantime the 
expanded fluids within, consisting for the most part, probably, 
of the steam of water, were throwing up occasionally, here 
and there, an elevation of loose and earthy materia, or mud, 
which finally became dry and very warm soil. 

The condensation of which we are speaking evolves more 
and more of ethere within ; and this ethere generates steam 
from the water which finds its way downward, into the heated 
cavities below ; and the steam thus generated heaves up, 
slowly and gradually, more and higher elevations ; and the 
whole, permitting its redundant ethere to pass off to the re- 
gions around us, begins, after the lapse of millions of years, 
to be solid and cool enough for Zoobotanides and Botanaxes, 
which probably arose from the infusortues above mentioned. 

The loose soil of which we have spoken becomes some- 
what indurated, and so constitutes a crust upon the body 
under consideration, though, at length, the same is broken up 
in many places, and highly elevated, as we have already ex- 
plained, till considerable cavities for lakes and small seas are 
formed, and many hills and little mountains are raised, and 
many large portions of earth have assumed the solid state. 
The latter, however, are reduced, in the course of a long du- 
ration, to pulverulence and fragments, by ethere and water, 
and more especially by the action of the great tides which 
must have then existed within as well as upon our semi-fluid 
mass of materia, and which should not be overlooked in this 
case ; and these pulverulent and fragmentary particles became 
aggregated and cemented together again, and so metamor- 
phosed, in many instances, perhaps, to what we now denomi- 
nate secondary rocks, while the less agitated masses of mate- 
ria, for such there might have been, beneath them, are raised 
up slowly and gradually, from time to time, in the manner 
here specified ; and being worn away somewhat by the action 
of our atmosphere upon them, become boulders, so called, 
which are now found scattered here and there upon, and a 
little beneath the Earth's surface. The rounded stones which 
appear every where beneath and around us, of all sizes, less 
than, say two feet in diameter, were probably worn, or many 
of them at least, to their present shape, while the particles of 
which they consist were in the act of cohering together, and 
while their mass was consequently still soft and plastic. The 
action of the tides already mentioned, and of which we shall 
presently speak more fully than now, caused them to be con- 
tinually rubbed against each other, during the lapse of un- 
numbered ages, till finally they became what they are at this 
day. 



GEOLOGY. 



167 



Many of the Radiataltue animales, and even some of tbe 
Tunicated ones, and also a few of the mediue grades of the 
Botanananthoes, may be now supposed to have arisen, in the 
usual spontaneous manner, from the biones beneath them, to 
being here upon this new stage of action, while the commo- 
tion above described is progressing and slowly operating ; 
and thus they become overwhelmed and entombed from one 
long period of duration to another, as we find them to have 
actually been. 

Water descends deeper into the crust of the Earth, and is 
thus converted, by the ethere evolved there, to steam ; and so 
higher mountains are consequently raised', and deeper cavi- 
ties, by the cadence of the neighboring regions, for seas and 
oceans, are formed. And as the latter begin to abound with 
Icthyes and Insectubranchiates, the dry land is covered, after 
millions, it may be, of years, with Botanendogenes, and en- 
livened with the presence of Reptiles — all which arose, very 
probably, from the biones beneath them. The Earth becom- 
ing more concentrated produces, after another long period of 
probably hundreds of thousands of years, many of the Botan- 
exogenes ; so that Insectutracheates and Ornithes, finding 
sustenance, appear upon their wings in the aerial regions 
above us, while the Mazodytoes begin to be multiplied, some 
of them roaming abroad and peaceably seeking their herba- 
ceous food, and others prowling in the wilderness for the 
same common object. 

Vegetation has now become abundant, and its growth rapid 
-and large ; and falling down, and being thrown by the com- 
motion above mentioned into masses, it becomes, in the 
course of ages, the coal which we rind at this day in the 
crust of the Earth. At length, after millions, undoubtedly, of 
years, the Earth becomes contracted to its present dimen- 
sions ; and is thus made to rotate, as we now find it to do, 
about three hundred and sixty- five and a quarter times during 
one of its revolutions around the Sun ; and Man, at the pro- 
per time, which appears, from many indications that may be 
noticed hereafter, to have been more than twenty thousand 
years ago, arose to being here, as lord of the whole. And 
why may we not as well suppose that he came from the 
Simias, as that he originated otherwise, and thence proceeded 
to what he now is ? Nature takes the easiest and most direct 
course in all her operations ; and which would be the most 
simple and convenient ? judge, ye objectors, in this case ; 
and certainly it is not the part of wisdom to disregard the 
best manner that offers itself upon any occasion. 



168 PHYSICS. 

-(c) From what we have said above (J 54), it appears that 
since the Moon left us and became a planet by herself, the 
angular velocity of the Earth's rotation has increased from 
one to about twenty-seven and a-half, while the velocity of 
any point in the Earth's equator is considerably less, in this 
motion, than is that of the Moon in its orbit. And thus we 
perceive that much of the velocity of rotation acquired by the 
external portion of the Earth, has been given up to its inter- 
nal mass. 

(155.) It should not be here supposed that any considera- 
ble mountains that appear upon the Earth were thrown up in 
a day, as we now measure time ; nor in a year ; nor proba- 
bly in a thousand years. They must have been pressed up 
gradually and slowly; and this pressure, caused undoubtedly 
by the steam of water, has operated frequently at very long 
intervals of time. Occasionally, this steam forces its way 
outward through the surface of the Earth, and throws up 
melted rocks ; and then such bursting forth, rather than the 
mountain itself, which is generally thus formed, is called a 
Volcano, or Vulcanue ; that is, Old Vulcan himself is ima- 
gined to be there at work ; for the smoke and flame of his 
furnace appear in proof that he is so. 

(156.) Much of the loose soil that is found upon the sur- 
face of the Earth having passed, as heretofore (154) sup- 
posed, from the gaseous to the liquid or solid state, must have 
become, in consequence of the tidal motion above mentioned, 
as we now find it to be, pulverulent and fragmentary, before 
it had time or leisure to cool down to more solidity or cohe- 
rence ; and of course it could have never been rock, in the 
vulgar sense of that term ; and much of our secondary rocks, 
as they are usually named, composed as they are of this det- 
ritue cemented together, is doubtless more solid, and in great- 
er masses, small as they may be now, than it ever became 
previously to its present condition, and subsequently to its 
being, in the last instance, as we have above (154) supposed 
it to have been, in a state of vapor. That the surface of our 
planet, it may be still further remarked here, was ever as hot 
as we now find, or believe its interior portion to be, should 
not be supposed ; for such could have never been the case 
respecting it. 

Since the Earth left the Sun he has been ever, as he now 
is, continually heating its equatoreal regions, while its polar 
ones have been slowly parting with ethere, and thus becom- 
ing cooler and cooler, to their present refrigerated condition. 
For a long period of time, however, they remained warm 



GEOLOGY. 



169 



enough, very obviously, as indicated by the Biosters found 
there, for the vigorous growth of many biones which require, 
as a residence, a very warm climate. 

(157.) Biosters (a Greek term that implies something that 
once had life of some kind, either animal or vegetable, and 
is now deprived of it,) indicate that many species of BioneS 
have lived and died upon the Earth, which are not ascertain- 
ed to be still continued here in the living state, at the time 
now being. Or, in other words, they are generally supposed 
among Bionopalologistes (or those versed in the knowledge 
of ancient biones,) to be wholly extinct. And, in searching 
for the cause of their being so, we should bear in mind that 
Ethere must lrave been far more abundant in very remote 
ages that are past, than it now is upon and near the surface 
of the Earth ; that, possibly, during the period above alluded 
to, all the nineteen Hylaples which have been thus far de- 
tected by chimistes, in the bionic systema of the present day, 
were not developed, or properly combined for the construc- 
tion of biones, and that consequently nature, who always 
forms biones of such portions of essentia as she happens to 
find ready prepared for the purpose in any given locality, 
might have used some things then which she rejects for bet- 
ter ones now, or does not find at all ; and may avail her- 
self of some things now which were not then ready at her 
hand in this case. Oxe, hige, and carbone, together with 
a temperature betwixt that of the congelation and ebullition 
of water beneath our common atmosphere, may be considered, 
very probably, as indispensable ingredients in the composi- 
tion of any bione, and especially here upon the Earth, how- 
ever the case may be in regard to the other heavenly bodies ; 
though betwixt these limits nature finds, very evidently, a 
wide range for her vital operations. As for example, Sodea, 
and even Calcea may be, and occasionally is, substituted, 
partially at least, for Calea, in the same species of bione. 
But these speculations belong more properly to bionodogia 
than here. From history, written and momental, we glean 
a little, though sometimes indirectly, respecting the mean 
temperature of the Earth's surface, for three or four thousand 
years past ; and of such gleanings the result is, that the tem- 
perature in question 'doos not appear to have decreased, very 
sensibly, during that time. And indeed, the crust of the 
Earth gives out and receives ethere very slowly ; and science 
is not aware of any thing adverse to the correctness of the 
supposition, that ice had commenced to accumulate upon the 
polar regions of the Earth as mu«h as a hundred thousand 

15 



170 PHYSICS. 

years ago. In short, we have no datues by which to limit 
the time when biones that are now called tropic ones were 
first driven, as such evidently were, at some remote epocha 
in the Earth's history, from those now frigid regions, to more 
congenial ones, a suggestion of which we shall make fur- 
ther use hereafter. 

(d.) Respecting the current of vipo which enters now upon 
the south pole, drawing up the water and becoming coldness 
there, and causing, sometimes, aurora australes, and follows 
the Sun's rays spirally around upon the surface of the Earth, 
raising the water against the trade winds several feet higher 
upon the western than it is at the eastern side of the Isthmus 
of Darien, rendering the eastern colder than is the western 
side of every body of land that rises above the water upon 
the Earth's surface, and controlling the Indicevipote, and 
passes off, though lingering for a while, perhaps, at the 
Earth's northern pole, and giving rise, in that way, to the 
aurora boreales we have spoken already in our article upon 
chimistry general analytic ethereal. 

(158.) Our Moon being thrown, as heretofore (145) said, 
from the Earth, assumed, in the usual manner, the globular 
form, though so great was the attraction of the Sun, as well 
as that of the remaining Earth, upon her, that she could not 
rotate oftener than she is now found to do, only once during 
each of her revolutions around the Earth, a circumstance 
which observation pr.oves to have attended many, and per- 
haps all the satelites in our solar systema. And, in conse- 
quence of this kind of rotation, she presents nearly, and, re- 
member, her librations, into the particulars of which we shall 
not enter now, prevent her from keeping exactly the same 
hemisphere always toward us. And, of course, one of her 
equatoreal diameters would pass, if continued in the proper 
direction, either through or near the center of her orbit, a 
circumstance that does not attend a more rapidly rotating 
planet. And this diameter, the interior end of which we 
may be supposed to see from the Earth, must be longer than 
is any other one through her. And the one among her equa- 
toreal diameters which is situated at right angles to this will 
be very naturally the next shorter, and her polar one the 
shortest that she has. 

Her surface is obviously very uneven ; and the reason of 
its being so may be, in part at least, that the materia of which 
she consists became indurated before it had time to flow about 
freely, and thus to equalize itself to a perfect sphere. Con- 
sidered as a satelite to the Earth she is proportionably large 



GEOLOGY. 171 

being equal in bulk to about one-fiftieth part of it, a circum- 
stance which indicates that her substance is considerably co- 
hesive or tenaceous, for otherwise so much of it would not 
have left the Earth at once. Volcanoes appear upon her dis- 
cue ; and hence there must be water there for the generation 
of steam to effect them. And the most accurate observers of 
the occultation of stars behind her, believe, as they assure us, 
that she has a small atmosphere, say about two miles high, 
around her. She may be somewhat colder than the Earth is, 
because her materia, in leaving us, did not probably carry 
along with itself a due proportion of ethere to be evolved as 
heat in condensation ; nor could she have carried any con- 
siderable quantity of oxe and niter, or of any other gas in the 
free state, for an atmosphere, as we have heretofore shown 
in planetology (142). 

And beside this circumstance, the smallness of the Moon's 
atmosphere, even admitted there is one there at all, will not 
be likely to retain all the reno there set free, whether from 
herself or the action of the Sun. Our atmosphere is not ethe- 
riodo, and therefore does retain, for a while at least, much of 
the reno here evolved. . . 

(159.) And here let us compare the inertia of the Earth with 
that of the Sun, pursuant to the formula M -r- mDV 2 -4- dv 2 , 
given at the end of our last article, or the one upon plane- 
tology, as follows : 

The Earth describes its whole orbit, according to the books 
before me, from perihelio to perihelio, in 365 d , 6 h , 13', 59", 
nearly ; or this is there given as the length of the anamolistic 
year, which, I think, should be taken in this case = 3 1,558, 
439 /, (a). 

Again, it is shown in our scientific books that a heavenly 
body takes the same length of time in completing its orbit, 
while the latter is an ellipse, that it would do, moving with 
its mean velocity, around a circular one having a diameter 
equal to the longer axe of such ellipse ; and therefore we 
take in this case the longer axe of the Earth's orbit, which is 
about 190,000,000 miles long. Multiply it by 3:1416, the 
well known proportion of circumference to diameter in case 
of a circle, and we have 596,904,000 miles for the whole 
periphery which the Earth's orbit would have were it circu- 
lar, and had it a diameter equal to its present longer axe, 
and the same is now to be supposed ; and this number 
divided by the 31,558,439 marked (a) above ; the seconds of 
the Earth's periodic time gives 19 miles, nearly, a second for 
the Earth's mean velocity in its orbit; and the square of this 



172 PHYSICS. 

is 361(b). The Moon completes her whole orbit in 27 d , 13\ 
18',37 // =2,380,717 // (c). 

Again, the mean distance of the Moon from the center of 
the Earth is put in the books at about 240,000 miles ; and 
her size is about one-fiftieth part of the Earth. Her density 
we know not exactly yet, but we shall here suppose her to be 
about the same in that respect as the Earth is ; and then the 
center of gravity betwixt her and the Earth will be near the 
surface of the latter body ; and from this center of gravity it 
is that her distance should be now taken, I think. The 
same principle would be equally applicable to that betwixt 
the Earth and sun, to be sure, but this center is so near the 
center of the Sun that it pay be practically considered to be 
so. 

For reasons just given we shall consider the diameter of 
the Moon's orbit to be only 472,000 miles long ; and this 
number, multiplied by 3:1416, becomes 1,482,835 miles, for 
the whole periphery which her orbit would have were it cir- 
cular, and had it a diameter equal to twice the distance at 
which she is from her mean center of gravity ; and this num- 
ber, divided by the 2,380,717 marked (c) above, the seconds 
of her periodic time, gives -6229 miles a second, nearly, for 
her mean velocity in her orbit ; and the square of this num- 
ber is -388(d). Therefore, according to the formula above 
written, M = (361 X 95,000,000 m) -^ -388x236,000)^:374, 
530 m. That is, the inertia of the Sun, Earth, and Moon, 
equals 374,530 times that of the Earth and Moon ; therefore, 
substracting one from this latter number, we have the Sun 
alone, equal to 374,529 (e) Earths and Moons. And, as we 
know not yet the density of the Moon, let us consider her 
size, about one-fiftieth part of the Earth, to be her inertia ; 
and then adding to 374,529 one fiftieth part of itself, we have 
382,020 (f) as the first approximation, which will be here- 
after a little reduced for the inertia of the Sun compared with 
that of the Earth alone. Various numbers have been obtained 
in this case. I find one to be 354,936 ; another, 337,442 ; 
and still another, 329,630 ; but the authors of them took — see 
Edinburg Encyclopedia — the sideral, instead of what they 
should have done, the orbital revolution of the Earth and 
Moon ; and furthermore, some of them took the smallest, in- 
stead of what they should have taken, the mean distance of 
the Earth and Moon from their respective central bodies. 

Laplace's number in this case is 354,936 ; and possibly I 
might find myself at issue with him in regard to my datues. 
I have taken the Moon's distance less, and the time of the 



GEOLOGY. 173 

revolution of the Earth and Moon greater, than he might 
have done. 

(160.) We shall now advert to the tides which arise upon 
the Earth ; and first, to the solar ones, or those that are 
raised here by the Sun's attraction. And, in doing so, we 
should bear in mind what we have already demonstrated, 
synthetically, in mechanics (117-118), that one body or 
mass, or collection of materia, attracts another, as the square 
of the distance of its center from that of such other inversely, 
and as its own inertia directly. And then let us take the 
mean distance of the Earth from the Sun, as we find it stated 
in the books upon planetology, to be 23,987 semi-diameters 
of the former. And then, calling the mean attraction of the 
Sun upon the center of the Earth, unity, we shall have the 
square of 23,987 div. by the square of 23,986, equal to 
1 -00008, for his attraction upon that portion of its surface, 
which is nearest to him. So that this fraction -00008 of 
his power will be employed in raising any fluid as a tide 
there. Now, by the same fraction, multiply 63,360, the 
number of inches in a mile, and we shall have five inches 
nearly of tide which the Sun will raise for every mile in the 
depth of any fluid upon the surface of the Earth, and directly 
beneath him. This attraction upon the Earth's surface, how- 
ever, will be always more or less oblique in direction, accord- 
ingly as the point where it happens to be exerted, is more or 
less distant from the one where he is, at the same time verti- 
cal ; a circumstance that should not be overlooked here, 

(161.) We shall now compare, not by observation, as we 
shall find ourselves obliged, eventually, to do, but theoretical- 
ly, in our first efforts, the lunar with the solar tides which 
arise in our waters. And for this purpose we take the dis- 
tance of the Moon from the Earth, as we find it stated in the 
books to be, sixty semi-diameters of the last mentioned body. 
And, for the moment, we shall consider the size of the Moon 
to be her inertia compared with those of the Earth. And 
then, according to the books before us, the inertia of the one 
will be about fifty times that of the other, whilf the inertia of 
the Sun we take as we have heretofore (paragraph 159) found 
it to be, about 382,020 times that of the Earth ; so that the iner- 
tia of the sun will be 382,020 mutiplied by 50, equal to 
19,101,000 times that of the Moon : therefore, while the at- 
traction &f the Moon upon the Earth is expressed by 1 divided 
by 3600, that of the sun will be so by 19,101,000, divided by 
the square of 23,987 ; and this quantity, divided by the other, 
will equal 120, nearly, implying that the Sun attracts 120 

15* 



174 PHYSICS. 

times as intensely as the Moon does the center of the Earth. 
And the tide which the Moon raises on the Earth is expressed 
thus: (3600) divided by (3481)— 1 equal to -03418, while 
•00008 mult, by 120, is the solar one there ; so that -3418, 
divided by -0960, is equal to $-551, which means that the 
lunar is something more than three and a half times as high 
as the solar tide ; but observation proves the former to be 
only about two and a half times as high as the other is. And 
our error is that we have taken the inertia of the Moon too 
great by assuming her to be as dense as the Earth is. And 
thus we show practically what we have heretofore done theo- 
retically, that the lighter particles of any condensing and 
rotating mass of materia will naturally rise to its surface, and 
be there ready to be thrown off in a ring as soon as their 
centrifugal force shall have become sufficient for their being 
so. 

(162.) We shall now ascertain the real inertia of the Moon 
compared with that of the Earth — Unity being taken for the 
inertia of the Sun, and m for that of the moon ; and the num- 
ber of semi-diameters of the Earth, from the center of the latter 
body to that of the Moon, being taken at 60, and the number 
of them, from the center of the Sun to that of the Earth, at 
23,987, the lunar tide may be expressed by ((m-r-(59) 2 ) — (m-f- 
(60) 2 ) ; while the solar one may be so by ((l-4-(23,986) 2 ) — 
((l-4-(23,987) 2 ) ; and the first of these quantities is 2J times 
as great as the other is ; so that (m~3481) — (m-r-3600) = 2-5- 
((•l-r-575.328,196)— (l-r-575,376,169)); or 78,585,171,733,- 
054,347,512 Moons = 3,005,878,094,000 Suns,_or 26,143,832 
Moons=the Sun nearly. 

Now take the number 382,020, marked (f ) above, para- 
graph (159), and by it divide this 26,143,832, just written 
above — thus 26,143,832-^382,020 = 68:4, nearly, showing 
that the Earth is 68:4 as heavy as the Moon is. 

Take now 374,529 (e) (159), and to it add -^ of itself, 
and you have 380,000, nearly, for the Sun alone, when the 
Earth is one ; and by this divide the 26,143,832 above = 69 
nearly, which*some make 75, for the Earth, when the Moon 
is one ; and why I differ from them appears above, (159). A 
further approximation gives 70 nearly for the earth. 

And now we can locate the center of gravity betwixt the 
Earth and Moon— thus : 60— x=70x, or x — 60 — 71 ; that, 
is, this center of gravity is about 600 miles below the surface 
of the Earth. 

(163.) The lunar being about two and a half times as high 
as the solar tide is, it follows that when added together, as 



GEOLOGY. 175 

they will be at the syzzygies, they will amount, directly be- 
neath the Sun and Moon, and even when the latter is in oppo- 
sition to the former, to about seventeen and a-half inches in 
height for every mile (160) in depth of the fluid where they 
are raised. And, supposing the ocean to be five miles deep, we 
should have nearly seven feet in height for the greatest tides 
there, which would be, of course, those of the Sun and Moon 
together ; while the highest ones raised there by the Moon 
alone, which would occur at her quadratures, would be some- 
thing like five feet high. And in our atmosphere the greatest 
tides will be nearly seventy feet high, while the greatest lunar 
ones there will be fifty feet in elevation. This, however, 
will be reduced at our latitude as much, at least, as one-half, 
by the obliqueness of the attraction concerned, added to the 
increase of distance from the attracting body. In the Medi- 
terranean Sea, where the water is probably less than the 
fourth of a mile deep, and the attraction oblique to its surface, 
an ordinary tide is hardly perceptible ; and not at all in our 
northern lakes; and much less in the common barometer. 

(164.) From what we have heretofore said in planetology, 
it may be inferred that, just as the Earth was parting with 
the ring of materia which became our Moon, its equatoreal 
was something more than twice as long as its polar diameter 
was ; and that immediately after this event its equatoreal 
parts subsided, so that its whole remaining mass became 
nearly spheric, having a diameter not far from half as long as 
is that of the Moon's orbit. It continued to condense, and 
thus to contract in dimensions, and its angular velocity of ro- 
tation, consequently, to increase. Its substance must have 
been "still sufficiently fluid to be affected more or less in the 
manner under consideration, quite to its center, for it did not 
become more dense than water is until the diameter of the 
whole mass had diminished to nearly once and a-half its pre- 
sent length. And let us see how high the tides were then 
upon our planet; (23,987) 2 ~(23,985i) 2 =l-00013, nearly; 
but as the disturbance in question decreases to the center, 
where it is zero, we take half of this fraction = -000065, 
which will be sufficiently accurate for our present purpose ; 
and we shall suppose this disturbance to have extended only 
4,000 miles deep ; and remember that we consider it to have 
been at this time nearly 6,000 miles from the surface to the 
center of the Earth. Multiply this 4,000 miles by the frac- 
tion -000065, above written, and we shall have -26 miles 
nearly for the hight of the solar tide. And now for the lunar 
ones; (60) 2 -^(58^) 2 = l-05 ; and half this fraction is -025; 



176 



PHYSlCS\ 



but this must be compared with the attraction of the Sun upon 
the Earth's center, thus : ((26,143,832)-^(23,987) 2 )-^-((l4- 
(60) 2 ) = 165; implying that the sun attracts 165 times as in- 
tensely as the Moon does the center of the Earth. And 
therefore we divide, thus: -025—1 65 = -0001 515 ; which, mul- 
tiplied by 4,000 = -606 miles for the height of the lunar tides 
upon the Earth at that time ; and to this add the solar one, 
•26 miles, above obtained, and we have nearly a mile for 
the height of both together ; and during this period it proba- 
bly was, when the crust of the Earth was passing from the 
fluid to the solid state, that the boulders and pebbles became 
what they now are beneath and around us ; and thus we 
shall be able to unravel many enigmas in Georyctology that 
would be otherwise wholly inexplicable. 

The lunar tides must rise, in consequence of the com- 
parative smallness and proxi- 
mity of the Moon to the Earth, 
somewhat abruptly upon it, 
while the solar ones there 
will extend, for the opposite 
reason, more or less over the 
whole of its illuminated hemi- 
sphere, as represented by the 
accompanying diagrama. And 
further, we have to remark in 
this connection, that the water 
at r is drawn upward from 
the Earth, while the Earth 
itself is drawn away from the 
water at g, where it rises in 
consequence of its centrifugal 
force. 

(165.) We shall now show 
why the highest tide of every 
half lunation is not the one at 
the syzzygy, but the next one 
afterward. As the Moon 
passes down from M to m, 
toward h, figure 1 of this dia- 
grama, around. the Earth, she 
lets go the water at o / ; and 
the same, or a portion of it, 
runs down to meet the tide 
which will be at a when the 
body in question shall have 




GEOLOGY 



177 



passed down to h ; and thus it appears that a part of one tide 
is continually flowing in ihe eastern direction, and meeting 
the next one that is coming at any place ; and hence the 
reason why every tide is further to the eastward than is the 
body that raised it. That is, the current in question will 
give to every tide a relative eastwardly motion by checking 
its westwardly one, and will thus cause the highest point of 
the same to be further to the eastward than it would other- 
wise be. And so, an incidental remark that may be inter- 
posed here, we are furnished with means that will aid us in 
accounting for some of the currents which are found in the 
ocean. To this eastern flow and elevation of water, how- 
ever, there is a limit impassible, as may be exemplified thus : 
Suppose the consecutive tides from the quadrature to the con- 
junction, or opposition of the Moon, to increase as do the 
numbers, 1, 2, 3, &c. ; and suppose that one-tenth part of one 
tide finds its way to augment the next one that is coming at 
any place. The first tide then, would be 1 a, and the second 
2, 1 b, and the third, 3, 2, lc, &c, which quantities are let- 
tered here in order that they maybe conveniently referred to, 
as occasion may require. On the sixth day the tide will be, 
according to this rule, 6-54321 f; and the next day, which will 
bring the Moon from her quadrature near to the syzzygy, and 
for convenience we consider her to be quite there, it will bo 
7'654321g ; and the day following this one it will be „ 
6*7654321f; which is a little more than one-tenth greater 
than was the one designated by f, immediately before the 
syzzygy ; and so the second one after the syzzygy will be 
greater than was the second in the retrogade order before it, 
and so onward. But notice — this fraction never becomes 
unity, so that it will not be true, as may be at first thought 
imagined, perhaps, that the height of the tides will increase, 
upon this supposition, indefinitely. And here let us notice 
again, that this additional quantity of water, which is always 
comparatively small, is constantly passing, and thus being 
distributed to other parts of the Earth's surface. 

(166.) We shall now look at another reason why the next 
tide after the syzzygy should be greater than is the one which 
rises precisely at that time. In figure 2 and 3 of our dia- 
grama, c f d represents the solar, and a f b the lunar tide, 
which rises higher and more abruptly than the other one 
does. In figure 2 the Sun, S, before the Moon, is seizing, 
while the Moon, M, is relinquishing the water at f\ and thus 
causing the difference betwixt the two tides to be less than it 
would otherwise be ; whereas, in figure 3, the Moon, M, 



178 



PHYSICS. 



having passed her conjunction, is seizing, while the Sun is 
relinquishing the water at f, and so causing the difference 
betwixt the two tides in question to be greater than it would 
otherwise be. And accordingly we perceive a double rea- 
son, or two conjoint causes, why the next tide after the syzzy- 
gy should be greater than is the one which occurs at that 
time. 

(167.) The axe upon which any heavenly body rotates 
will not be likely to change its relative position within it ; 
and those who imagine any such change in that of the Earth, 
do not, in that particular, whatever they may do in other 
respects, command my attention. Upon any side of this axe 
there will always be as much momentue as there is upon the 
opposite one ; and hence, tides will naturally rise equally 
in opposite directions upon any rotating body where they 
rise at all ; and remember that what the fluid thus elevated 
gains in height it looses in gravity ; so that the barometer 
will not indicate tides in our atmosphere, though the mercure 
in this instrument will rise, imperceptibly however, at the 
same time. 

The Sun is about 400 times as far as the Earth is from 
the Moon, when the latter is in conjunction with him ; and 
calling the Earth's attraction unity, that of the Sun upon her 
then will be 374,529, (the proper number marked (e) in para- 
graph (159), because the Moon is acting in both of these 
cases,) -4-160,000=2-35 nearly ; so that the Sun attracts 
more than two and a-third times as intensely as the Earth 
does the new Moon ; and yet he does not retain her ; and 
those who talk about the moving of comets in parabolic and 
hyperbolic curves, prattle, in my humble opinion, the gross- 
est nonsense. True, the parabolic movement is the one of 
ordinary projectiles ; and the hyperbolic one is theoretically 
possible, though no instance of the kind occurs to me at this 
moment. To neither of these motions can any heavenly body 
be ever subjected. They will move in the periphery of an 
ellipse, though the eccentricity of that ellipse may be indefi- 
nitely small or great. No body, in any systemaof them, like 
our solar one, can ever get out of it. All such systemas are 
permanent till reduced again to vapor, as they probably will 
be at some future period in the course of duration, and recom- 
posed again ; or, in other words, they will not be permanently 
disturbed by the ordinary action of ethere, which is called 
gravitation, though they may be, as they have been, so by an 
extraordinary action of it called lightning. 

(168.) The Sun's nucle is probably more dense than the 



GEOLOGY. 



179 



Earth is ; and grant it is no less than to be equally so, and 
we shall have the cube root of (380,000-X5236=:90 in round 
numbers of the Earth's mean diameter, which is stated in the 
books to be 7,957 miles, and which, multiplied by this 90, 
gives 716,130 miles for the diameter of the nucle in question. 
Subtract this from 884,444, the Sun's apparent diameter, and 
take half of the remainder, and we have 84,157, or say in 
round numbers, 100,000 miles for the height of the Sun's 
atmosphere. And the accounts that observers have given us 
of the dark and apparently deep cavities which the spots on 
the Sun's discue become to their aided vision, will justify the 
conclusion, I think, that the ethere which surrounds the Sun 
is at least as high as here supposed. And hence, calling the 
attraction of the Earth, at its own surface, unity, that of the 
Sun, at the surface of his nude, will be 380,000-^-8,100=47 ; 
and of course biones there should be as light as feathers, while 
upon the Moon they should be as heavy as bareasulphuruter. 
And if their size is proportioned, as they are here, to the diame- 
ter of the body upon which they are, they should be, in the one 
case, about a fourth, and in the other, ninety times, as large 
as they are here. Reason would meet with difficulties insur- 
mountable in adapting biones to the different planets ; and 
yet dame Nature, wholly unconscious of her own operations, 
has adapted them to the Earth at least — speculations which 
will come more appropriately hereafter, under the head of 
bionologia, than they do in this place. 

(169) Hutton makes the solid contents of the Earth to be 
263,758,000,000 cubic miles ; and as we shall find 147,197,- 
952,000 cubic feet in a cubic mile, so, by the proper multi- 
plication, we shall have 38,823,459,840,000,000,000,000 
cubic feet in the Earth. Now the whole Earth is estimated 
to be five times as heavy as water is at 62^ pounds to the 
cubic foot, and consequently we have (38,823,459,840,000,- 
000,000,000) X((5-x62i)-^2000)) = 6,066,165,600,000,000- 
000,000 tons for what the Earth would weigh upon itself; 
and it would weigh 47 times as much upon the nucle of the 
Sun ; while the Sun himself would weigh 380,000 x 47 times 
as much there, and 380,000 times as much upon the Earth. 

(170.) Geology (154) we shall now consider as divisible 
into — 1st, Geography, or the description of the size, form, 
and surface of the Earth ; 2d, Georyctology, or the know- 
ledge or description of the composition, structure, and gene- 
ral constitution of the Earth ; 3d, Bionologia, or the know- 
ledge or description of the Biones, a general term, by which 
is here intended the vegetales and animals, and other living 
beings, if any others there are, upon or affecting it. 



180 Physic?. 



GEOGRAPHY. 



(171.) Button's Mathematics gives, among other miscellanies, 
a few remarks upon the Earth. Its mean diameter is there 
put at^7,957f miles ; its contents at 263,758,149,120 cubic 
miles; the area of its surface at 198,943,750 square miles ; 
and its circumference at 25,000 miles. 

The form of the Earth is an oblate spheriode, being, as 
every body in a similar predicament must be necessarily, 
elevated at its equator and compressed at its poles, a circum- 
stance of which we have heretofore spoken. 

Bowditch's Navigator considers its equatoreal to be about 26 
miles longer than its polar diameter is ; a fact that has been 
ascertained by actual measurement, as well as from the vibra- 
tions of the Pendulue ; for the rapidity of these vibrations 
increases from the equator to the poles ; thus indicating that 
it is so approaching fthe center of gravity. 

Look at any of the globes or maps that are made and 
circulated, and received among us, for representing the 
Earth's surface, and you will perceive at once that about 
three-fourth's of the same are covered with water ; and we 
shall here consider the area of that portion of it which rises 
above this water to be about 55,000,000 square miles ; so 
that our planet becomes, after all, rather an aquatic than a 
terrester paradise. The large quantity of water upon its 
southern hemisphere renders one of two things certain ; either 
that the land is low, or else that the water is high there ; and 
for the latter I contend ; and my reasons for this opinion I 
have given already in my article upon chimistry ethereal (70). 
And if such is the case, the degrees upon the terester meri- 
dian, from the equator to the latitude of about 45° south, will 
be too long, while those from thence to the pole will be too 
short for the corresponding ones upon the Earth's northern 
hemisphere ; or, in other words, the two hemispheres under 
consideration, of the Earth, are not symmetric, the one with 
the other of them. And this is just what Lacaille found a 
hundred years ago, from the actual measurement of a degree 
up©n the terester meridian in the latitude of about 33 J° south, 
and near the cape of Good Hope. It is conjectured, how- 
ever, that he committed an error in that measurement. In 
the 16th volume of the Edinburgh Journal of Science, it is 
stated that while Herschell, J. W. F., was at the cape of 
Good Hope, about 1835, surveying the heavens, one of his 
corps, Mr. Maclare, re-examined the amplitude of this arc of 



GEOItYCTOLOGY. 181 

Lacaille's in question, and was not a little surprised to find it 
correct ; for remember that Lacaille's instruments were far 
inferior to similar ones now in use for such purposes. And 
now I say to the scientific world, re-measure that arc, and 
you will find that Lacaille did not commit any egregious 
error there. The water is high npon our southern hemis- 
phere. It has been there about 5,500 years, and will remain 
about 5,000 years longer, and then it will be drawn suddenly 
upon us again, and cover us here at this latitude, perhaps, 
500 feet deep, and be one-third of a mile high at the Earth's 
northern pole, and will remain here about 10,500 years and 
make a deposite. And thus, by means of the one from ano- 
ther different stratues in the crust of the Earth immediately 
beneath us, may the Earth's history be traced backward 
about one hundred and fifty thousand years. For more of 
geography see what is already published upon it. 

GEORYCTOLOGY. 

(172.) We advance to the subject of Georyctology (170), 
which is the second department here recognised of Geology 
(170), and which implies, as already (170) said, a knowledge 
or description of the composition, structure, and general con- 
stitution of the Earth. As to the composition or contents of 
our planet, however, we know but little, to say the most that 
we can say of it in this respect, beneath its mere crust. It 
probably contains many substances in its interior parts which 
are different from any that have hitherto come to our know- 
ledge. So far as they are known to us, however, we have 
already, and sufficiently for our present object, spoken of 
them in chimistry minicologic (113). And respecting its 
structure and general constitution, we have to continue that 
these, and any thing more of its contents, can be advanta- 
geously discussed, we think, under the heads of — 1st, Aerolo- 
gia, or the doctrine of the atmosphere above and around us ; 
2d, Hydrologia, which refers to the water that is found upon 
the Earth ; and 3d, Stereology, which imports, here, a know- 
ledge or description of its solid parts. 

(173.) The greatest tides that are raised in our atmosphere 
may be, as we have heretofore (163) said, about seventy feet 
high ; while the highest lunar ones of them, and the same 
will occur, of course, at the quadratures of the Moon, will not 
be probably more than fifty feet high ; and this difference in 
the disturbance thus occasioned in our atmosphere may be 
the cause of the change of weather which is commonly ex- 
16 



182 PHYSICS. 

pected and often observed to occur at the change of luo 
Moon's phase. 

(b.) Let us now look at the constant change of location in 
this aerial tide. Its highest point is sometimes twenty-eight 
degrees from the terrester equator ; and from its greatest lati- 
tude, more or less, at any time, it takes a spiral direction, fol- 
lowing the Moon, of course, around the Earth ; and is found, 
at the expiration of half a lunation, or say a fortnight, at the 
same latitude, or nearly so, the other side of our equator. 
Here then is a continual change of locality in the disturbance 
under consideration ; and possibly a comparison of the daily 
weather during one with that of another revolution of the 
Moon's node, a period of about nineteen years, might enable 
the aerologiste to derive some generalization in this case. 

(c.) Equaledieinocteal and solstitial storms are well known 
in our atmosphere ; and when we reflect that at the equale- 
dieinoctes the Sun's rays pass somewhat quickly from one to 
the other pole of the Earth, and that at the solstices they 
have been long absent from one, and long present to the 
other of these poles, we perceive some reason, and perhaps a 
sufficient one — and remember that a sufficient reason is al- 
ways considered as the true one in physics — why there 
should be, at both of these epochas, a greater change in the 
atmosphere above and around us than generally takes place 
for a considerable time either before or after them. 

(d.) There are some places upon the Earth where, during 
their summer time, no rains ever, in ordinary cases, descend 
from the heavens above them ; and the reason why they do 
not so is, doubtless, that the winds there arrive thither from a 
cold region, and thus absorb, instead of yielding moisture. 
To Chili and Peru, where rains during their warm season 
are hardly known, the winds blow, at that time, from the cold 
regions around the south pole of the Earth. And similar 
remarks may be properly made respecting northern Africa, 
where the interior mountains are lofty, and consequently, 
though equatoreal, covered much with snow. And to this 
circumstance should be added that of the evenness of the 
ground there where much reno is retained. 

We have heretofore said, in chimistry minicologic (113), 
that the quantity of aqueous vapor which the air above and 
around us is able to contain will always depend very much, 
betwixt some limits, ascertainable or not so, upon its tempera- 
ture and density. At night this vapor gives out its reno to 
be neutralized with vipo, which then may exist redundantly 
in the Earth, and thus to pass off as calore, leaving the vapor 



GEORYCTOLOGY. 183 

itself there condensed to the state of dew. When there are 
clouds above us, however, during the absence of the Sun from 
our hemisphere, we seldom find much dew upon the Earth ; nor 
do we so when the air around us is moving considerably dur- 
ing that time. And the reason of it all appears to be this. 
In case of the clouds, we have to remark that aqueous vapor 
condenses, occasionally, to some particular state or condition, 
and so becomes visible to us as fog, or clouds ; and in this 
condition it seems to be, in ordinary cases, disposed, for a 
time at least, neither to give or receive any more reno ; and 
thus it takes none from the Earth beneath it ; and so the 
Earth, parting with but little of its own, is not very avi- 
dous for that of the aqueous vapor that is near it. In case of 
the winds above alluded to, they dissolve the vapor in ques- 
tion, so that it cannot be deposited any where, just at that 
time, as dew. 

(e.) Remember that aqueous vapor is only about half as 
heavy as is ordinary atmospheric air ; and that in it, as well 
as in other gases, elasticity becomes, occasionally, a substi- 
tute for weight, so that it is rendered thus enabled to support 
itself, and to maintain its position amid the heavier air that 
may chance to be then around it ; or, in other words, a column 
of air containing much of it in this location, for example, 
where the mercury in the barometer is pressed upward, as 
usual, to any height, as it may happen to be, less than thirty 
inches, will support, though not indefinitely to be sure, but 
for a time, either longer or shorter, according to circumstan- 
ces, another column of air which contains but little of this 
vapor, say ten miles off, where the mercury in the same in- 
strument just mentioned rises full thirty inches high. And 
here we perceive that heated air does not always ascend. 
And therefore it is that the surface of the Earth ever becomes 
warmed at all, an occurrence that could not take place if the 
air upon it, always arose as fast as it became considerably 
healed. And the law in the case now before us appears to 
be as follows : If the air above is of precisely the same con- 
stitution as to its materia with that which is near any part of 
the Earth's surface, or any thing else, the latter portion of 
air will rise, when heated, among the former one, and thus 
bring about an equiliber in the whole of it. From all places 
it does, for reasons here indicated, rise more or less when 
heated. And we find it to do so especially beneath the appa- 
rent daily course of the Sun. And hence the Monsoons of 
India, as well as the general Trade winds, so called, which 
consist of currents of air rushing inward from each side of 



184 PHYSICS. 

the Sun's course above mentioned, to supply the place of that 
which, being thus heated, ascends there. And the western 
direction of these currents is wholly relative, being caused 
by the eastern motion of the Earth's surface in the act of 
rotation. 

(f.) Of this aqueous vapor the elasticity, however, is some- 
what transient. A portion of reno suddenly leaves it in the 
state of rain, or dew, and becomes thus neutralized with its 
opposite bipetente as best it can be so, and thus passes off in 
calore. This reno, if small in quantity, will not be likely to 
affect our vision ; while, if much of it is thus evolved, it will 
give rise to a flash of light, in combining with vipo. If it does 
not find a sufficiency of its opposite kind of ethere where it 
happens so to be, it will dart across the sky in streaks of 
light, which may be zigzag in form; and perchance it may 
seek some object, as we have heretofore, in chimistry gene- 
ral analytic ethereal, explained. Into the vacue occasioned 
by the condensation just mentioned, the air around it rushes ; 
and this rushing may be so violent as to become thunder to 
our ears. The winds blow, and the air being elastic, a re- 
action takes place, and a gyratory movement in the atmos- 
phere there ensues. And remember we have indicated, in 
chimisiry ethereal, that the reason why the reno which con- 
stitutes the lightning of heaven goes zigzag sometimes, is be- 
cause it finds more vipo in that way than it would do in a 
straight line. 

(g.) The common whirlwinds that we occasionally witness 
upon the surface of the Earth are the production of ethere, as 
w T e have said in chimistry. The reno of the air draws the 
same along in pursuit of the vipo of the Earth ; and, in con- 
sequence of the elasticity of the air, a gyratory movement, is 
there mechanically generated ; and the same is true when the 
phenomena in question is magnified to a tornado or hurricane. 
The incipient cause in all such cases is dyname chimic, 
though dyname mechanic always co-operates and acts a pro- 
minent part therein. In such a storm, as it is indeed, the 
feathers are sometimes torn from the bodies of fowls, by their 
vipo seeking the reno of the atmosphere around them. And 
furthermore, in a storm of this kind, that side of the roof of a 
building which the wind first strikes is not likely to be dis- 
turbed, while the opposite one of the same roof will be often 
removed. And this is the effect of dyname mechanic. The 
wind of which we are speaking produces, by means of its 
force and elasticity, a acue just over the ridge, upon the oppo- 
site side of our roof, while the air beneath that side presses 



GEORYCTOLOGY. 185 

the same upward, and so throws it off. And, as to this vacue, 
we shall further remark, for the purpose of making every 
thing plain here, that the air just over the ridge of which we 
are speaking, being elastic, recoils and recedes when struck 
as above mentioned, while that which strikes it, being also 
elastic, rebounds, leaving a place there somewhat vacant of 
air. And, from what we have been here saying, we perceive 
that much dyname mechanic enters into the storms to which 
our atmosphere is subject. In the first place, be it remem- 
bered here that atmospheric air rushes into a vacue near the 
surface of the Earth, at the rate of about eighty rods, or one- 
fourth of a mile, in a second of time ; and that, as the same is 
elastic, the vacue left by two masses of air rebounding from 
each other is twice as ample as it would be if one only of such 
masses were so. 

(h.) It is the mutual action of vipo and reno, or of the dif» 
ferent classes of ethere, which commences and continues, 
while it lasts at all, every storm in the atmosphere above and 
around us ; and yet the moment dyname chimic begins, dy- 
name mechanic falls in and acts its part here. First, a quan- 
tity of ethere, seeking its opposite bipetente, drags a mass of 
air along upon the Earth, or possibly from one to another 
region of our atmosphere. Into the vacue thus occasioned, the 
air around it instantly rushes, and a reaction takes place, not 
only here, but at the point also where our two bipetentes are 
bringing masses of air together, or to the Earth, as already 
mentioned. Aqueous vapor is condensed to rain, and the two 
etheres are, consequently, evolved more or less in the free 
state, and thus become the cause of what we denominate, in 
case we perceive it, Lightning. And generally there must 
be more of reno than of vipo here ; and if these two etheres 
can meet together in the clouds where they have been thus 
evolved they will do so, causing thereby sometimes a percept 
tible light ; and then again, nothing that appears to us. If 
they cannot so combine wholly together, however, then any 
redundant quantity of either of them, which may be there 
remaining, will be likely to seek its opposite bipetente in the 
most conveniently accessible object elsewhere ; or, in other 
words, upon the Earth ; and so that object will be struck with 
lightning. Meantime, the condensation above indicated pro- 
duces a vacue which is instantly filled, by either the falling 
or expansion of the neighboring air, and a reaction occurs, 
&c, &c. ; and when we can estimate all these effects, and 
trace each one to its immediate and particular cause, we 

16* 



186 PHYSICS. 

shall know more, in my opinion, than we now do. In fact, a 
general view of them is sufficient. 

(?'.) Of the aurorapolares, and other luminous appearances 
in the aerial regions above us, and also of water spouts, so 
called, at sea, we have, heretofore, -in ethereal chimistry, and 
in planetology, likewise spoken. 

(174.) Under the head of hydrologia (172) we have to 
observe, that we have heretofore given the reason why an 
island is warmer in the summer time, at noon day, than is 
the water immediately around it ; and why the eastern is 
colder than is the western side of every large body of land 
which rises above the water upon the Earth's surface. And 
we have spoken, too, of the elevation of the water now at 
the Earth's southern pole ; and thus, supposing the solstitial 
revolution of the Earth's perihelion to be once in 21,000 years, 
the rate at which it is now moving, we can trace the Earth's 
history, by means of the stratues in the Mississippi Valley, 
backward about 150,000 years. And we understand, also, 
how the surface of the Earth has been frequently washed 
from north to south, and from south to north. And we ac- 
count, moreover, for the drift and boulders that appear here 
and there around us, and for the great cold that has existed at 
both of the Earth's poles. In fact, we can assign an adequate 
cause for whatever we discover upon and within the crust 
of the Earth. For the currents in the ocean we perceive also a 
cause. The Atlantic trade winds give rise to what is called the 
Gulph stream which comes from the Gulph of Mexico around 
cape Florida, and so passes along our coast to Newfoundland 
island, and thence proceeds southeastwardly to the coast 
of Africa, and thence southwardly till it falls in with its com- 
mencement ; all which is to well known to need further par- 
ticularization here. The south winds of the southern Pacific 
ocean send a current of water eastwardly around Cape Horn, 
and another one northwardly along the western coast of 
Columbiaauster, as South America should be called. The 
northern Pacific trade winds give rise to a counter and north- 
wardly current of water, which, passing Behring's straights, 
seems to find its way somehow around Columbiaboreal, as the 
northern portion of this continent should be named, for our 
own country is America, and thence south-westwardly along 
its coast, and west of the gulph stream, farther south, at least, 
than New-York, as observation has fully proved. And ano- 
ther current of water, caused by southwardly winds, is found 
to flow westwardly around the cape of Good Hope. But as 
these currents are all well known, and especially by naviga- 
tors, we shall not enter into particulars respecting them here. 



GEORYCTOLOGY. 187 

(175.) Under the head of Stereology (172) we remark that 
the lowest rock known is granite, above which is a slaty- 
variety of the same lithople, that is called by the uncouth 
term of gneis, (say Genise) ; and above this genise is mica- 
slate ; and then clayslate, and then calceacarboneubi, or lime- 
stone ; and next, augite, or hornblend ; and next, calceasul- 
phuruter, or gypso ; and next, serpentine ; and then, s'ilice ; 
all of which we have described in chimistry minicologic ; 
and it should be remembered here that a greater or less num- 
ber of the stratues, except the granite, in this series, is often 
absent. They are called, sometimes, Plutonic rocks, because 
their proper locality is below and not above others which also 
are found in the crust of the Earth. And'they are denomi- 
nated also, sometimes, Primitive, or Primary rocks, because 
they appear to be now in the same condition in which they 
cooled down to solidity. The present aspect of the pJutonic 
rocks is the consequence, doubtless, of the gradual manner in 
which they passed from the vaporous state, in which we have 
supposed all the materia around us to have been, to what 
they now are ; for, being re-melted in a volcano, and thrown 
up from thence and cooled, they exhibit an aspect and struc- 
ture considerably variant from those which they do without 
such metamorphose. And they thus become what are termed 
volcano rocks. 

(b.) Among the micaslate are found Talca, Serpentine, 
Steatite, and Chlorite. Among the calceacarboneubi is found 
Calcefluorito, and also what is calied Dolomite, a compound 
homogene of calceacarboneubi and magneseocarboneubi. Of 
augite we find many species ; and one of them is called horn- 
blend ; and of this there are several varieties, such as actyno- 
lite, tremolite, and asbestos. One kind of it is basalt ; and 
seems to have been melted and cooled again. Another is 
greenstone, which appears to have become melted since it 
became basalt, and which contains small particles of felspar ; 
some consider it as melted granite. Still another kind of 
hornblend is porphyry ; or rather, it is a coarse variety of 
greenstone, where the particles of felspar are large. And 
the w T hole of these augite rocks, breaking, as they often do, 
into columnar, and step or stairlike portions, are sometimes 
denominated, from the German, trappa, a step or stair, Trap 
rocks. 

(c.) Above these plutonic rocks are the secondary ones, so 
called, which consist partly of the ruins of the plutonic and 
volcanic ones, and partly of materia which was too much dis- 
turbed by tidal action in condensing to assume any other form 
or texture than what it now exhibits. 



188 PHYSICS. 

(d.) Among these secondary rocks are a kind of clay slate, 
of calceacarboneubi,of calceasulphuruter, and of greenstone, as 
well as several kinds of sandstone, a lithople that consists of 
silicious, micaceous, and felsparic particles or fragments, 
cemented together, sometimes, with ferreuy and argileoy, 
when it is red sandstone proper, and sometimes with argileoy 
alone ; and when this last mentioned, kind of it is soft, the 
same is denominated sandstone of the argileoyous or rnica- 
cious character, as in case of common grindstones, whet- 
stones, &c. ; and when it is hard and coarse it is called 
Graywacke, though in case its particles are very large, it is 
named Breccia, or Puddingstone. 

(e.) Many blosters are found among these secondary rocks ; 
and the most of them, both of the animal and vegetable kind, 
are Petrified, a term which implies that much of their origi- 
nal substance has been removed, and that its place has been 
supplied by a minico one ; so that, instead of the lignue of vege- 
taleSjWefmd hornstone in this case. The impressions of ich- 
thyes, and also of the foliage of vegetales, are found sometimes 
in clay slate ; and the bones of the higher animals, petrified 
or not so, appear occasionally in sandstone. The habitations 
of moluscate animals are abundant in sandstone and gray- 
wacke, as well as in secondary calceacarboneubi ; and in 
such cases the gelutinous portion of these habitations is gene- 
rally gone, while its place is occupied by the substance in 
which they are imbedded. 

(f.) Peat, a well known substance, is evidently metamor- 
phosed vegetation. Bituminous, and some anthrace coal, pre- 
sent indications, though less obviously than peat does, of 
being so too. And hence the conclusion to which some 
have arrived, that glance coal, a hard and very brittle variety 
of anthrace, buitumine of all kinds, and even diamond and 
graphite, or plumbago, are likewise so. That the carbone of 
some of these last mentioned substances has existed hereto- 
fore in vegetation, either upon our present Earth, or upon 
some planet of which our Earth is the ruins, is possible. But 
remember, however, here, that plumbago is a compound of 
argileoysilice and ferrecarbonite ; and therefore its carbone 
must have ceased to be the remains of vegetation before it 
entered as an ingredient into this substance. Diamond is 
crystalized, a state to which carbone does not pass, in my 
humble opinion, till it ceases to have a vegetable structure ; 
and when it has so ceased it is carbone proper, whatever it 
may have previously been. I cannot therefore, consider dia- 
mond as the remains, direct or indirect, of vegetation. As 



GEORYCTOLOGY. 189 

to amber, glance coal and bitumine I am not so positive ; and 
here, for the moment at least, I leave this part of the subject. 

(g.) Thus much at this time for the crust of the Earth. 
And this crust, it should be remembered here, is compara- 
tively thin. By examining mountains, vallies and mines, we 
extend our knowledge, more or less, into the Earth for the 
greater part of a mile, it is true, but even this, compared with 
its semi-diameter, it will be readily perceived, is very small. 

(h.) The mountains upon the globe we inhabit consist, not 
of loose earth, but of piles of rocks, which were evidently 
thrown up, as we have heretofore (155) said, by a force be- 
neath them. These rocks lie in all positions to be sure, but 
generally more or less sloping, or inclined to the horizon ; 
and those at the sides, near the bottom of the mountain upon 
which they are found, slope upward frequently, like the roof 
of a house, showing thus that they were elevated from the 
horizontal position. Holyoke and Tom, in the Connecticut 
valley, Mass., are greenstone ; and they were thrown up 
through a thick stratue of red sandstone ; and even at this 
day, upon the highest peaks of them, are blocks of red sand- 
stone, which the greenstone in question carried up as it rose. 

(i.) Bear in mind that where the mountains above men- 
tioned stand, there was, first, a stratue of soil, which seems 
to have been as much as fifty feet thick ; second, a stratue of 
red sandstone, which appears, from various indications, to 
have been more, to speak safely, than ten, and, possibly, fifty 
feet thick ; and then below this a stratue of greenstone, which 
must have been more than a thousand feet thick ; and beneath 
all this, a quantity of the steam of water, as it very probably 
was, pressing upward, as well as in every other direction, 
affected, during many long ages, what we now find there ; 
and this is, doubtless, a correct epitome of the history, or the 
outlines of the manner in which every mountain originated 
and made its appearance upon the Earth. 

(j.) Generally speaking, the highest mountains, that are 
not volcanic, upon our planet, and a volcano we have hereto- 
fore defined to be a mountain where the steam which throws 
it up breaks out through the crust of the Earth, consist of 
granite, and are to be considered more recent than the lower 
ones are. They are all, whether high or low, worn down 
more or less by time and the elements ; but of the higher 
ones the secondary rocks have mostly disappeared from their 
tops and sides, while the lower ones consist wholly of such 
rocks ; or, in other words, the force which elevated the higher 
mountains was much deeper in the Earth than was that which 



190 PHYSICS. 

raised the lower ones. Observe here, that we are now speak- 
ing of mountains that are not volcanic ; and we need scarcely 
to add, that those which are so consist, whether high or low, 
and especially at their tops and down their sides, of volcanic 
rocks. 

(k.) As the temperature increases something like one de- 
gree C, and I aim not at strict accuracy here, for every hun- 
dred feet from the surface of the Earth downward, the opin- 
ion is prevalent among Georyctologistes that the whole Earth, 
except a comparatively thin crust, say a few hundred miles 
thick, if you please, must be intensely hot, and in a state of 
fusion ; and experiments that have been made upon the at- 
traction of mountains indicate that the mean density of the 
Earth is about five times that of water, or nearly twice that of 
the rocks which we find here upon its surface. And hence 
there must be heavy matter of some kind at its center, where 
gravitation requires the heaviest matter to be ; and the same 
we shall suppose here to be metallic ; and, in fact, it can be 
nothing else with which we are conversant. 

(/.) Upon the rocks of many regions of the Earth's surface, 
are deep scratches, that are supposed to have been done by 
stones that were carried along in masses of ice by water. 
And we may well imagine that many places upon the surface 
of our planet have been, not only thrown up and broken to 
fragments by the causes heretofore mentioned, but raised up 
gradually and slowly, and let down unbroken again, a cir- 
cumstance that will enable us to account for many appear- 
ances upon it which would be otherwise somewhat enigma- 
tic ; for in this way, as well as in others heretofore men- 
tioned, water may have been made to flow in different direc- 
tions where none appears now. And remember we are now 
speaking of the minor incidents that have probably occurred 
in the Earth's history, and which may be supposed to have 
modified the effects of the larger ones heretofore indicated. 

(m.) Of the small rounded pebbles, and also of the bould- 
ers, or large and rounded portions of rock, that appear every 
where more or less numerously upon the Earth, we have spo- 
ken in geology, (154). That many of them have been trans- 
ported a considerable distance by water while inclosed in 
masses of ice, as some judicious georyctologistes have sup- 
posed, is probable ; and it is probable, also, that this trans- 
portation of them takes place once in about ten thousand 
years, as the water rushes from one to the other pole of the 
Earth ; and here we leave, for the moment, this part of our 
subject. 



GEORYCTOLOGY. 191 

(176.) As the Earth is deserted by vipo passing from its 
polar regions toward the sun's beams, its crust is contracted, 
and so exhibits fissures, generally in the eastern and western 
directions, and crossed by others at right angles, or nearly 
so ; though the western extremity of the former will bear, as 
miners find it to do, beyond the tropics, a little toward the 
equator, both sides of it ; while, within them, it may bear, 
somtimes, in the opposite direction. This vipo, passing to- 
ward the Sun's rays upon and wichin the Earth's surface, and 
holding upon minico substances, draws them to that wall of 
these fissures, or minico veins, so called, which is nearest to 
the same parallel of latitude in the plane extended, of which 
the Sun appears to be at the same time moving around the 
Earth ; and there obtaining the only object for which ethere 
ever moves at all, its opposite bipetente, it leaves them de- 
posited. And thus it is that minico viens in the Earth's 
crust are, sometimes at least, filled ; and interior particles of 
metals may be drawn up more or less by their own reno, 
seeking vipo at the surface of the Earth. 

(177.) Respecting the dip, so called, of the indicevipote, 
we have spoken in our article upon chimistry general analy- 
tic ethereal, (71) ; and we there showed, or, at least, asserted 
it to be caused by the current of vipo which passes around 
the Earth ; and that about five thousand years hence, its 
southern extremity will dip, as its northern one now does. 
And furthermore, we spoke there of the manner of its secular 
declination, so named, from given meridians ; and we have 
now to observe what is generally known already, that the 
indicevipote does not point, in this declination, to any one 
particular point of the Earth from all places where it may 
chance to be located. Suppose n, fig. 11, to be the pole 
either north or south, while the circumference of our figure is 
the equator of the Earth. And imagine that an indicevipote 
at h points toward i ; and that some time afterward it is found 
to be, as it may be, according to its usual deportment, directed 
towards g. Our instrument is removed immediately, we fur- 
ther assume here, to k, or, what is the same thing, another 
similar one is there located at the same time now referred to ; 
but certainly it will not be there found to point toward that 
g, by any means, though it may be, in this case, directed to- 
ward m. In short, a little reflection will show that the indi- 
cevipote is declined from the true meridian, when so at all, 
not by any particular attraction alone, but by the resultant of 
many of them ; and what attracts it in this way at London, 
may have no effect upon it here. In other words, there are 



192 PHYSICS. 

no magnetic poles or equator upon the Earth or elsewhere. 
But can we put our finger upon the entire cause of this 
declination in given cases 1 I apprehend not so — I perceive 
no means for deciding which end of the instrument is affected 
in any such case ; nor can I say that both may not be, some- 
times, so ; and this effect may be caused by accidentally 
warm localities, as well as by masses of ferre. Let us sup- 
pose that the crust of the Earth became, in consequence of 
the peculiarity of its materials and structure, compared with 
those of its interior portion, so much indurated as to cease 
contracting, while the central nucle, w, fig. 1 1, continued to be 
further condensed, and thus broke away from the rest, aa 
represented in the digrama before us, rotating faster than the 
external portion of it does upon the common axe, so that 
masses of ferre which may be rationally imagined, I think, to 
be in the shell here indicated, and to be there affecting, as 
ferre is found to do, the indicevipote, and constantly, though 
in all probability slowly, changing their position in regard to 
those of the nucie in question ; or, suppose that, in conse- 
quence of such movement, particular localities in the Earth's 
crust become warmer for a time than is the region around 
them. And such being admitted to be actually the case here, 
we shall perceive at once that the resultant also of any num- 
ber of attractions thus brought into action upon either end of 
our instrument will be constantly changing its position and 
force. And here let me add, that Dr. Halley is said to have 
conjectured something of this kind, though science was not 
in his day, as she now is, aware that such a thing could take 
place, Mechanically. Nor does this supposition require, as 
may be at first thought imagined, perhaps, that the declina- 
tion of which we are speaking should be periodic in any 
place. Should it prove to be so, however, such period would 
be a part, to be sure, though we might be still uncertain as to 
what one, of the time occupied by this nucle in gaining one 
revolution of the shell around it ; and here I leave this part 
of my subject for others to examine. 

BIONOLOGIA. 

(178.) We pass now to the subject of Bionologia (170), 
the third and last grand division here made of Geology (170) ; 
and the same we divide here into three minor departments — 
1st, Biology, or the science of life considered as such with- 
out reference to any mere individual subject of it, or to any 
group less than the whole of biones ; 2d, Bionosystase, or 



BIONOLOGIA. 193 

the proper arrangement, classification, and particular descrip- 
tion of biones ; and 3d, Bionoarxe, under which head we 
may indulge some speculations respecting the origination or 
incipience of biones. 

(179.) Of Biology (178) we have, embracing the whole of 
it, three primary divisions — 1st, the Composition ; 2d, the 
Structure ; and 3d, the General Constitution, of biones. As 
to their composition (179), however, we have already spoken 
in chimistry bionic, (104). And, respecting their structure, 
we have to observe here that it is more or less fibrous ; and 
to their external portion, which is always somewhat variant 
from the remaining part of them, and which is called, in com- 
mon parlance, their skin, bark, or rind, according to circum- 
stances, we shall apply the general term Cute, though it is 
often named by others their Derma ; and the exterior stratue 
of this cute being, as it usually is, distinguishable from the 
interior portion of it, we shall here name the Cuticle, though, 
called sometimes by others the Epiderma. 

(180.) Under the head of the General Constitution (179) of 
biones, we proceed to remark that they consist each of three 
great systemas : that is to say — 1st, the Nutritive one, by 
means of which they are increased in size, and, as long as 
they live at all, supported and sustained ; 2d, the Motive 
one, by means of which they change the relative position, if 
not of their whole body, at least of the one from another dif- 
ferent members of it from time to time ; and 3d, the Repro- 
ductive one, by means of which they transmit or extend their 
existence, and thus become, considered as species, very 
longeovus. 

(181.) The nutritive (180) systema of biones consists of 
three great classes of apparatue — 1st, the Apparatue Alimen- 
tary, wherein, by means of suitable organs, with which they 
are usually furnished, they receive, selected by themselves 
from what is around them, substances as food, to be there 
Digested, a term that implies a peculiar and somewhat com- 
plicated modification of what is so received to a liquid or sof* 
tened state, by the action of the contents of its receptacle 
upon it ; 2d, the Apparatue Respiratory, into which they 
receive or Inhale portions of the atmosphere around them, 
and from which they Expel or Exhale, as occasion requires, 
vaporous substances that are evolved, or happen to be redun- 
dant within them ; and 3d, the Apparatue Depository, which 
consists of a systema of tubular or more or less elongated 
vessels within them, and by means of which they effect, either 
directly or indirectly, from the results of the digestion here 

17 



194 PHYSICS. 

indicated, all their deposites, whether Incretion, Secretion, or 
Excretion. 

(182.) In the Motive (180) systema of biones we find — 
1st, parts that are firmer than the remaining portion of them 
is, and which may be called their Leverage ; 2d, if not regu- 
lar muscles, attached to these parts, at least Elasticity there, 
which may be termed their Cordage ; and 3d, either proper 
Nerves, or something analogous thereto, by which they apply 
power to that cordage, and thus become enabled to execute 
movements. And these movements take place most com- 
monly pursuant to the principle of the lever of the first order 
or kind, as we have heretofore, in mechanics, arranged it, 
though it is sometimes called the third one ; that is, the pow- 
er in the lever now adverted to is betwixt the fulcer and the 
resistance, or the weight to be moved ; and the same is ex- 
emplified when any body is raised upon one of its ends, or 
sides, or edges, by a power applied any where from thence 
directly toward its opposite extremity. Great motion is thus 
obtained at the expense of much power ; and a little reflec- 
tion will show that this specie of leverage is generally very 
admirably appropriate to the case before us ; and not merely 
so, but the only one that could be admitted at all, where it is 
thus found to be, in the bionic systema. Such, we say, is 
the general leverage of bionic movements, though the feet of 
all animals, that have proper feet at all, are raised by a lever- 
age of the second specie ; and they balance theirselves, when 
they have occasion to do so at all, by means of the third, which 
is called by some mechanicans the first one. Bionic mecha- 
nics are not wholly unimportant, nor uninteresting, to many 
persons, though we shall not stop to pursue them here. 

(183.^ In the Reproductive (180) systema of biones we 
find, and especially among the higher grades of them — 1st, 
the Masculine organs, or agents ; 2d, the Feminine organs, 
or subjects, that are designed to be acted upon by the mascu- 
line parts just mentioned ; and 3d, the Ultimate Result of the 
conjoint operations of both of these systemas of organs. 

(184.) Respecting the manner in which the first bione that 
ever appeared upon our planet originated, we shall make no 
enquiries at the present moment ; and for the time now being 
we shall suppose that all of them which we find to exist here 
were regularly propagated. And of such the incipience, 
which soon became a perceptible mass of materia, took place, 
as observation shows, within their female parent ; and we 
name it an Ovule. Its first appearance was upon another 
body of materia from whence it probably arose, and which we 



BIONOLOGIA. 195 

shall here term the Ovulery. The contents of this ovule, 
being acted upon, or Impregnated by the Sperma, so called, 
of the masculine agents above mentioned, or rather, by the 
calore of that sperma, gave rise therein, sooner or later, 
and either directly or indirectly,- to an Embryo, (for what 
else can we call even the young fern or moss ?) or the 
bione in minature which is now supposed to be here before 
us in its perfect state, and similar, in all general and import- 
ant respects, to its parentage. Such we infer to be the his- 
tory, so far, of every bione now existing upon the Earth ; 
except, perhaps, some few of the very lowest of them. And 
to this exception, whatever it may prove to be, something or 
nothing, we shall advert again hereafter, when we shall have 
come to speak more particularly of those grades of biones 
where it may, possibly apply. 

(185.) The calore of the sperma (184), and the latter in 
vegetals is usually called Pollen, combining with that of the 
ovule in question, occasions, in case it produces its proper 
effect at all, a specific calore or temperament, which we shall 
here term a Phrene, and which characterizes the resulting 
bione. This phrene may be modified, less or more, by 
circumstances, it is true, but will never become radically 
changed. 

(186.) We have said (184) that the contents of the ovulej 
being impregnated, gave rise, in the case here supposed, to 
an embryo ; and we have now to add that the whole ovule, 
thus impregnated, becomes, if belonging to the higher biones, 
a Fetue, called in vegetals, however, a Semine, where the 
embryo already specified commenced immediately to be 
developed, though it remained, foi a while, connected with 
its parent ; and, if belonging to the lower biones, the ovule 
in question became an Ovue, which is termed in vegetals a 
Seminule, where the embryo is not developed till the ovue 
itself is subjected to the well known process of hatching, or 
vegetating. And, in either of these cases, the embryo was 
nourished for a while, immediately after it arose to being, 
certainly among the higher biones, and probably among the 
lowest of them, for we consider the seminule as analogous 
to the ovue, by means of a Placenta, for under this general 
term we include the contents of the ovue. And this placenta 
was connected with such embryo, and is so named because 
in the human subject it assumes a discuous or cake-like form. 
And in case of the fetue and semine, the placenta in ques- 
tion is connected with the parent ; but not so in that of the 
ove and seminule. 



i$6 PHYSICS. 

(187.) We have spoken of what observation finds to occur 
in the history of propagated biones ; and we suppose that all 
which exist now any where around us were actually so ; an 
of course, what we have here advanced will be applicable d 
the whole of them ; and similar acts will be likely to produ to 
similar effects hereafter, though failures and abortions ce 
be always expected in any case. may 

(188.) Some biones may be observed to Perspire, a term 
which implies that water, holding frequently, to appearance, 
something in solution, comes out from them, and upon their 
cute, to be thence evaporated ; and, in other cases, this or 
that takes place- there, which may be considered, perhaps, a 
substitute for perspiration, while in other cases still, neither 
any real perspiration, or thing analogous to it, is obvious ; and 
perhaps we should not say that perspiration in any form, 
except in ordinary excretions, is common to all biones. 

(189.) Thus much we have found to say at this time re- 
specting the general constitution (180) of biones ; but under 
this same head we have further and more particularly — 1st, 
their Anatomo, which implies an examination or analyse, as 
minute as practicable, of all the systemas mentioned above ; 
2d, their Temperament, where attention is to be given to their 
specific calore ; and 2d, the Disorders that are incident to 
them. 

(190.) Respecting the Anatomo (189) of biones, we have 
to continue that the gases which enter the apparatue respira- 
tory of any bione, are thither drawn by their own regente 
ethere ; and thus through the coat, which is always thin and 
membraneous, of the vessels there found, of its apparatue de- 
pository, and so render, in a manner varying according to cir- 
cumstances, the contents ; and the same are always a liquid, 
of those vessels fit to perform its depository functions ; and 
the simplest and most original form which the incrementory 
portion of this deposite assumes, apparently at least, is that 
of mere Tissue ; and this tissue is converted, as occasion 
requires, into globular vessicles ; and these vessicles become, 
in their turn, and amid the proper circumstances, attached 
together, compressed and elongated into Fiber ; though it may 
be saying too much, perhaps, or more than our present, know- 
ledge might authorize us to do, to assert that all the fiber 
which appears in the bionic system has actually passed 
through both of the stages or conditions here specified. 

(191.) In turning our attention to the temperament (189) 
of biones, we should bear in mind that every body of materia, 
and even space itself included, has its own specific and even 



BlOKOLOGfA. 19? 

individual calore, though such individuality is little apparent 
among the minico substances ; and that it is a peculiar modifi- 
cation of calore which constitutes Life of any description, 
whether animal or vegetable ; and enables it to bring portions, 
not of all indiscriminately, but of only a few of the hylaples 
around us, together in the form of a bione, and respecting 
which something further may be added, than what is here 
intimated, perhaps, under the head of bionoarxe, (178). 

(192.) In regard to the Disorders (189) of biones, we know 
that there are, sometimes, Malformations in them ; sometimes 
Acts of Violence, designed or not so, upon them ; and then 
again, Diseases, properly so called, attending them ; and here 
let the remark be added, that the cause of their diseases is 
always to be sought for in the particular temperament of the 
individual bione that happens to be subject to them. A 
bione, like every other combination of essentia around us, is 
wholly accidental ; and hence there is one, among an infinite 
number of chances, that some individual bione may continue 
indefinitely. We know that some, not to say countless my- 
riads of them, have been here upon the Earth, which are no 
longer represented, even in kind or specie, by any living de- 
scended. And we know that many exist here at this pre- 
sent day, and especially trees, which are supposed to be seve- 
ral thousand years old ; and, judging from what we can gather 
of their general history, we infer that many others, and even 
innumberable multitudes of them, > ill arise hereafter succes- 
sively and constantly, as long as they find a place convenient 
for their brief existence. 

(193.) A part of a bione, considered as a mere bionic re- 
main, may be called a Bioster, a Greek term, which implies 
something that once had life, and is now deprived of it ; 
while the specie, if believed to be wholly extinct, to which 
it belonged, may be named a Bioneesbemeno. If such an 
article is considered as the representative of a very ancient 
bione, the specie of which may or may not be still continued in 
being, it may be styled a Bionepalai ; and if made to repre- 
sent an existing specie of bione, it is of course a Bioneonte. 

(194.) Phrenologia (185) may be extended, in import, so 
as to embrace the knowledge of the essential character, not 
only of an individual human being, as it usually does, but also 
of any material thing whatever ; or a knowledge of the phy- 
sical laws by which it is governed ; and, in regard to a bione, 
the question, so far as phrenologia is concerned, will become 
something as follows : What will be the effect of the Size, 
Form, and Structure of its one from another different organs ? 
17* 



198 



PHYSICS* 



and what of their Number, Arrangement, and Variety ? That 
there is a tendency in biones to Self-preservation, Security, 
and Aggrandizement, is obvious ; and perhaps the same may 
be said of the mere crystal, and even of any collection of 
essentia. 

(195.) Passing to Bionosytase (178) we have to say, that 
of biones we have two primary groups, certainly; 1st, the 
Vegetals, the science of which is called Botany, and which 
might be written Botanology with strict propriety, if such 
were the custom respecting it, and where we find mere life 
and growth that are termed Instinctue, or instinct ; and 2d, 
the animals, the knowledge or description of which is called 
Zoology, and where we find sensation and locomotion more 
or less superadded, even in the lowest of them, to the mere 
life and growth which they profess in common with vegetals. 

(196.) The known biones, considered as one entire group, 
may be represented by the capital letter U, one side of which 
indicating the animals, and the other the vegetals, that are 
found upon the Earth. Man being in his proper situation, at 
the top of the animal side of our figure, will be widely sepa- 
rated, as he is indeed, from the highest grade of vegetals ; 
and suppose some of our forest trees, that may be imagined 
to occupy the other or vegetable side of the same figure ; 
while at the bottom of the bow of the letter before us, the 
lowest of the animals run into those of the vegetals quite im- 
perceptibly ; so that the exact line, if such a thing there is 
at all, where each of these divisions of the biones in question 
commences in the ascending scale, is not distinctly'- obvious ; 
and yet bionologistes do generally agree upon one and the 
same point in this case. 

A modified epitome of Lindley's Botany, and anGther of 
Stark's Zoology, we intend soon to publish ; and the reader 
may indulge his own speculations in reference to Bionoarxe 
and Divinity. 



FINIS. 



